Category: News

Camiel EURLINGS (EPP-ED, NL)
Report on the 2004 regular report and the recommendation of the
European Commission on Turkey’s progress towards accession
(COM(2004)0656 – C6-0148/2004 – 2004/2182(INI))
Doc.: A6-0063/2004
;OBJID’678&LEVEL=3&MODE=SIP&NAV=X&LSTDOC=N
Procedure : Own initiative
Debate : 13.12.2004
Vote : 15.12.2004
Vote
The EU should begin accession negotiations with Turkey “without undue
delay”. Two days before a decision by the European Council, MEPs
adopted a resolution saying that Turkey has made impressive progress
in respecting the political criteria, enough for negotiations on EU
membership to start. The resolution was adopted by 407 votes in
favour, 262 against and 29 abstentions in a secret ballot (under rule
162 of Parliament’s Rules of Procedure).
Nevertheless, Parliament acknowledged that problems continue to exist,
such as regarding minority rights, religious freedoms, trade union
rights, women’s rights, the role of the army, Cyprus and the relations
with Armenia. Therefore it stressed that, in the first phase of
negotiations, priority should be given to the full application of the
political criteria. In case of serious breaches of the political
criteria, negotiations must be suspended. MEPs also underlined that
starting negotiations will not automatically result in Turkey’s
accession and that appropriate ways will have to be found “to ensure
that Turkey remains fully anchored in European structures”, should
negotiations not be successfully concluded.
MEPs were satisfied that Turkey had fulfilled a number of
recommendations and requirements included in earlier EP resolutions,
such as the abolition of the death penalty; the extension of
important fundamental rights and freedoms, reduction of the role of
the National Security Council and the lifting of the state of
emergency in the south-east. But they said that Turkey still had to
adopt further reforms and put these, as well as current reforms, into
practice. Thus it would have to lift all remaining restrictions on
broadcasting and education in minority languages; put an end to the
discrimination of religious minorities; completely eradicate torture;
draft a new constitution; lower the threshold of ten percent in
parliamentary elections; disband the village guard system in the
south-east; apply ILO standards for trade union rights; limit the
role of the army further; continue the process of reconciliation with
Armenia; and recognise the Republic of Cyprus. MEPs also mention ed
the eradication of violence against women, freedom of expression and
press freedom as issues they would monitor closely.
The Parliament also referred to earlier conclusions of EU government
leaders that “the Union’s capacity to absorb new members while
maintaining the momentum of European integration constitutes an
important criterion for accession, from the point of view both of the
Union and of candidates for accession”. And it noted that Turkey could
only become a member after the EU’s long-term budget planning for the
period from 2014 onwards has been decided upon.
Press enquiries:
Joëlle Fiss
(Strasbourg) tel.(33-3) 881 73656
(Brussels) tel.(32-2) 28 41075
e-mail : [email protected]
&
Marjory van den Broeke
(Strasbourg) tel.(33-3) 881 74337
(Brussels) tel.(32-2) 28 44304
e-mail : [email protected]
;L=EN&LEVEL=2&NAV=X&LSTDOC=N#SECTION1
From: Emil Lazarian | Ararat NewsPress

FEDERATION EURO-ARMENIENNE
pour la Justice et la Démocratie
Avenue de la Renaissance 10
B – 1000 BRUXELLES
Tel: +32 (0) 2 732 70 26
Tel./Fax : +32 (0) 2 732 70 27
E-mail : [email protected]
Web :
COMMUNIQUE DE PRESSE
15 décembre 2004
Contact: Talline Tachdjian
Tel.: +32 (0)2 732 70 27
LE PARLEMENT EUROPEEN EXIGE DE LA TURQUIE LA RECONNAISSANCE EXPLICITE DU
GENOCIDE DES ARMENIENS
Strasbourg, France – Le Parlement européen a amendé et adopté ce jour la
résolution de Camiel Eurlings (PPE / Pays-Bas) sur la demande d’adhésion de
la Turquie, par 407 voix contre 262.
En particulier, il a adopté le paragraphe 55 insistant « sur le fait que
l’ouverture des négociations sera le point de départ d’un processus de
longue haleine, qui […] ne conduit pas a priori automatiquement à l’adhésion
». L’amendement proposé par M. Toubon (PPE / France) et évoquant la solution
du « partenariat privilégié » a été rejeté après un vote à bulletin secret.
Dans sa résolution, le Parlement européen évoque les thématiques
arméniennes, et en particulier la question du génocide, dans pas moins de 8
paragraphes. Des amendements allant dans ce sens avaient été déposés par des
parlementaires de cinq groupes politiques (PPE, PSE, ALDE, GUE, IND/DEM)
respectivement à l’instigation de M. Toubon (PPE / France), de M. Poignant
(PSE / France) et Mme Carlotti (PSE / France), de Mme De Sarnez (ALDE /
France), de M. Wurtz (GUE / France) et de M. Belder (IND/DEM / Pays-Bas).
Au final, le Parlement européen invite la Turquie à se réconcilier avec le
peuple arménien en reconnaissant le génocide et fait appel au Conseil
européen et à la Commission d’exiger de ce pays la « reconnaissance formelle
de la réalité historique » de ce génocide.
La Fédération considère que cette résolution du Parlement européen est d’une
importance capitale pour l’avenir de l’Europe. « A la veille du sommet
européen, les chefs d’Etat doivent enfin prendre en compte cette leçon de
démocratie pour notre avenir » a déclaré Hilda Tchoboian, la Présidente de
la Fédération Euro-Arménienne. « C’est une victoire éclatante pour tous les
Européens qui veulent préserver les valeurs de l’Europe face à l’Etat
négationniste que demeure la Turquie » a-t-elle continué.
Depuis sa résolution de 1987 qui mettait la reconnaissance du génocide des
Arméniens comme un préalable incontournable à l’adhésion de la Turquie à
l’Europe, le Parlement européen a constamment reformulé cette demande dans
ses rapports successifs.
« L’appel du Ministre français des Affaires Etrangères et cette résolution
du Parlement européen livrent un même message : la Turquie ne peut pas
adhérer à l’Europe sans renoncer à sa politique nationaliste et agressive
envers l’Arménie. Les Arméniens d’Europe en appellent au prochain sommet
européen afin d’agir dans ce sens », a conclu la Présidente de la Fédération
Euro-Arménienne.
#####
ANNEXE :
AMENDEMENTS ADDITIONNELS ADOPTES EN SESSION PLENIERE
* Amendement 80 – Bernard Poignant, Pierre Moscovici, Marie-Arlette
Carlotti, Harlem Désir, Martine Roure et autres, adopté par 470 voix contre
198
EE bis. considérant que les autorités turques n’ont également
toujours pas satisfait aux demandes concernant les autres questions
arméniennes telles qu’exprimées par le Parlement européen dans sa résolution
du 18 juin 1987,
* Amendement 18 – Francis Wurtz et Dimitrios Papadimoulis, adopté par 395
voix contre 273
34 bis invite la Turquie à promouvoir le processus de
réconciliation avec le peuple arménien en reconnaissant le génocide commis
contre les Arméniens comme le demandaient ses résolutions antérieures
concernant le statut de candidat de la Turquie (du 18 juin 1987 au 1er avril
2004);
* Amendement 83 – Jacques Toubon et autres adopté par 332 voix contre 325
35 bis. appelle la Commission et le Conseil à exiger des autorités
turques la reconnaissance formelle de la réalité historique du génocide des
Arméniens en 1915 et l’ouverture dans un délai rapide de la frontière entre
la Turquie et l’Arménie, conformément aux résolutions adoptées par le
Parlement européen de 1987 à 2004;
ARTICLES DU RAPPORT PROVISOIRE CONCERNANT LES QUESTIONS ARMENIENNES
* EE. considérant que les autorités turques n’ont toujours pas rouvert la
frontière entre la Turquie et l’Arménie et qu’elles ont perdu une occasion
de promouvoir de bonnes relations de voisinage avec l’Arménie,
* 7. se félicite en particulier de la réforme de la procédure pénale qui
renforce les droits de la défense; considère toutefois que l’article 305 du
nouveau code pénal turc, qui réprime de supposées “menaces à l’encontre des
intérêts nationaux fondamentaux” et dont un commentaire cible explicitement
la liberté d’expression, notamment sur les questions concernant Chypre ou
l’Arménie, est incompatible avec la Convention de sauvegarde des droits de
l’homme et des libertés fondamentales de 1950; demande donc son abrogation
immédiate;
* 35. estime que les gouvernements turc et arménien doivent poursuivre
leur processus de réconciliation, éventuellement avec l’assistance d’un
comité bilatéral d’experts indépendants, afin de surmonter de manière
explicite les expériences tragiques du passé, et demande au gouvernement
turc de rouvrir le plus rapidement possible les frontières avec l’Arménie;

EU parliament to vote on backing Turkey’s membership bid on eve of key EU
summit
By CONSTANT BRAND
.c The Associated Press
BRUSSELS, Belgium (AP) – The European Parliament is expected to call
on EU leaders Wednesday to open membership talks with Turkey, but only
if the country carries out a slew of democratic reforms, including a
zero-tolerance policy against torture.
The 732-member EU assembly meeting in Strasbourg, France, is to vote
on more than 80 amendments to a resolution concerning Turkey’s
ambitions to join the 25-nation bloc. Many of the amendments, drafted
by conservatives and euro-skeptics, call for the EU not to start entry
talks.
The resolution, which the parliament’s influential foreign affairs
committee drafted and passed two weeks ago, is nonbinding. It calls
for EU leaders, who will meet on Thursday and Friday, to “open the
negotiations with Turkey without undue delay” if Ankara meets the
conditions, including economic, political and judicial reforms.
EU leaders will decide during the summit on whether to open talks with
Turkey and when the negotiations should begin.
There has been growing public anxiety within the EU over allowing a
large, poor and predominantly Muslim country to join, and lawmakers
were expected to toughen the conditions in the resolution and try to
influence leaders to do the same during their crucial talks.
Hans-Gert Poettering, leader of the conservative European People’s
Party, the largest group in the parliament, warned of “historical
consequences” if Turkey is allowed to join and said it would change
the EU forever.
“If there are negotiations, then we will negotiate with a country in
which there are enormous human rights violations,” Poettering said
during a debate on Monday.
German and French conservatives have demanded a tougher resolution,
demanding Turkey officially recognize Cyprus as a condition to opening
talks. Other resolutions demand Turkey recognize the killing of
Armenians nearly a century ago as genocide.
One, drafted by French conservative Jacques Toubon, calls on Turkey to
“formally acknowledge the historic reality of the genocide
perpetrated against the Armenians.”
Armenians accuse Turkey of genocide in the killings of up to 1.5
million Armenians as part of a 1915-1923 campaign to force them out of
eastern Turkey.
Ankara vehemently denies the genocide, says the death count is
inflated and that Armenians were killed or displaced along with others
as the Ottoman Empire tried to quell civil unrest.
The question of Turkey recognizing Cyprus has become a key dispute
between Turkey and EU governments ahead of Thursday’s summit, but
Turkey’s Foreign Minister Abdullah Gul said Ankara has no plans to do
so before the meeting.
The island has been divided into a Greek Cypriot-controlled south and
a Turkish-occupied north since Turkey invaded in 1974 after an
abortive coup by supporters of union with Greece. Only Turkey
recognizes the breakaway Turkish Cypriot state, and Ankara does not
recognize the Greek-Cypriot government in the south.
The resolution already says that opening negotiations would
“presuppose recognition by Turkey” of Cyprus, which joined the EU in
May and so would be involved in Turkey’s membership negotiations.
Other amendments, supported by France and Denmark, call for the EU to
prepare a backup plan in case entry talks fail or Turkey backtracks in
democratic reforms.
12/15/04 03:25 EST

PRESS RELEASE
Catholicosate of Cilicia
Communication and Information Department
Contact: V. Rev. Fr. Krikor Chiftjian, Communications Officer
Tel: (04) 410001, 410003
Fax: (04) 419724
E- mail: [email protected]
Web:
PO Box 70 317
Antelias-Lebanon
“HOW IS IT POSSIBLE TO ACCEPT TURKEY IN EUROPEAN COMMUNITY WHEN IT STILL
IGNORES THE GENOCIDE COMMITTED AGAINST THE ARMENIAN PEOPLE”
Declared His Holiness Aram I
Antelias, Lebanon – In a context of a telephone interview with a European
press agency, and in answering to a question concerning the membership of
Turkey in European community, His Holiness Aram I expressed his concern and
said: “European community was not established only on economic interests and
political collaboration. It is fundamentally a community of human values
which ensure the identity, integrity and unity of Europe, and give a
particular place and role to Europe in international community. Among these
values human rights occupy an important place”.
His Holiness Aram I raised a great doubt and concern about the way the human
rights are respected in Turkey. He said: “To what degree and in what way the
human rights values are accepted, respected and practiced in and by Turkey?
Turkey still ignores its immediate past; it still rejects to recognize the
Genocide which was planned and executed by the Ottoman Turkey in 1915. I
believe that the recognition of the Armenian Genocide by Turkey is not only
an “Armenian problem”; it is a problem that pertains to the entire
international community, since it is a problem of justice and human rights.
The recognition of the Armenian Genocide by Turkey must be taken very
seriously by Europe as Turkey is trying by all means to become a full member
of Europe”.
Then concluding his remarks, said: “In this globalized world of ours
nations, religions, cultures and civilizations must live together on the
basis of peaceful coexistence. But living together as good neighbors and as
part of broader community implies to accept our fault, to affirm the truth
and recognize the rights of the others. In fact, the real community is built
on the basis of mutual trust and by doing justice. Therefore, it is my firm
expectation that beyond economic and political interests Europe will
continue to remain firmly attached to basic human values. It is the
expectation and hope of Armenians all over the world that the present Turkey
reaffirm the truth, accepting the historical reality by recognizing the
Armenian Genocide”.
In answering to a question related to the recent pressures and difficulties
surrounding the Ecumenical Patriarchate, in Turkey, His Holiness Aram I
said: “Here is another concrete example of the way the human rights are
respected in Turkey. The World Council of Churches and the Conference of the
Churches in Europe have publicly expressed their concern on this matter
expressing their solidarity with the Ecumenical Patriarch”.
##
The Armenian Catholicosate of Cilicia is one of the two Catholicosates of
the Armenian Orthodox Church. For detailed information about the history and
the mission of the Cilician Catholicosate, you may refer to the web page of
the Catholicosate, The Cilician Catholicosate, the
administrative center of the church is located in Antelias, Lebanon.

BBC News
Last Updated: Monday, 13 December, 2004, 22:20 GMT
Turkey ‘must admit Armenia dead’
France has said Turkey must improve its human rights record
France has said it will ask Turkey to acknowledge the mass killing of
Armenians from 1915 as a “tragedy” when it begins EU accession talks.
French Foreign Minister Michel Barnier said Turkey had “a duty to remember”.
Armenians say 1.5 million of their people died or were deported from their
homelands under Turkish Ottoman rule.
Mr Barnier did not say it was genocide, although the French parliament has
done so in the past. Turkey says the victims died during civil unrest.
Mr Barnier said France did not consider Turkish acknowledgement a condition
of EU entry, but insisted his country would raise the issue once talks
opened.
France will pose this question – I think that a big country like Turkey
has a duty to remember
Michel Barnier
French Foreign Minister
Where Turkey’s bid stands
Speaking to reporters after a meeting of EU foreign ministers to discuss
plans to invite Turkey for accession talks, Mr Barnier said Turkey “must
carry out this task as a memorial”.
In addition, France believes that accession talks should not begin before
the second half of 2005, Mr Barnier said. Turkey has pushed for immediate
negotiations.
“I believe that when the time comes, Turkey should come to terms with its
past, be reconciled with its own history and recognise this tragedy,” Mr
Barnier said.
‘So-called genocide’
His comments drew no immediate official response from Turkey, which has
consistently denied orchestrating genocide.
A foreign ministry spokesman in the Turkish capital, Ankara, told Reuters
that Turkey has never and will never recognise “any so-called genocide”.
Armenia alleges that the Young Turks, in 1915 the dominant party in the
Ottoman Empire, systematically arranged the deportation and killing of 1.5
million Armenians.
Turkish relations with independent Armenia, which borders Turkey to the
north, have long been coloured by the issue.
About 300,000 Armenians live in France, more than in any other European
country, and community leaders have pledged to pressure French President
Jacques Chirac on the genocide issue during Turkish accession negotiations.
France passed a law officially recognising the Armenian genocide in 2001,
cooling relations with Turkey and scuppering a major arms deal.
Another 14 nations, including Switzerland, Russia and Argentina, also
classify the killings as genocide.

PRESS RELEASE
Council of Armenian Non-Governmental Organizations
of the Samtskhe-Javakheti Region in Georgia
Akhalkalak, Samtskhe-Javakheti
Georgia
Contact: Khatchatur Stepanian
Tel: (+995 99) 93-75-61
E-mail: [email protected]
Web:
Integration, not Assimilation:
Samtskhe-Javakhketi NGOs hold their first public forum

AKHALKALAK (A-Info) – The first public forum organized by the Council of
Armenian non-governmental organizations (NGO) of the Samtskhe-Javakhketi
region, was held on December 11 in Akhalkalak to discuss the
socio-economic issues of the region. The subsequent public forums are to
discuss issues related to culture and self-governance.

The public forums are titled “Integration, not Assimilation,” as the
Armenians of the region do not oppose the integration within Georgia,
but defy the “integration” policy of Georgia’s central government
leading to assimilation.
Representatives of the United Nations, the Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe, the European Commission, the Council of Europe,
foreign ambassadors, ethnic Armenian and Georgian members of the
Georgian parliament as well as Georgian government officials were
invited to attend the public forum. Most of those high-ranking
officials, however, did not attend the public forum. Only Beatrice
Schulterier, the representative in Georgia of the OSCE High Commissioner
on National Minorities, and Michael Hertoft, the Akhalkalak project
manager of the European Centre for Minority Issues were present. Also
attending were members of local self-governing bodies, local
intellectuals and representatives of NGOs from the region, as well as
from Tbilisi and Yerevan,

Georgian parliament’s ethnic Armenian members, elected from the region,
also did not attend the public forum. Instead they chose to attend a
convention of one of the Armenian political parties in Yerevan.

Nevertheless, the public forum vividly discussed the issues on its
agenda.
Two reports were presented by experts on the socio-economic issues of
the region, Azat Shipaktsian and Artashes Palanjian, who stated that the
region has found itself in a difficult socio-economic state due to the
discriminatory policies of the central government of Georgia. They also
noted that the funds donated by international donors were not evenly
dispersed when it comes to the Armenian population of the region.

Following the reports, the participants expressed their opinions
regarding the socio-economic problems of the region, in fact asserting
the opinions expressed by the rapporteurs.
At the end of the discussions, the public forum adopted a resolution on
the socio-economic situation of Samtskhe-Javakhketi (the resolution is
attached), and recommended to the Council to establish a commission to
work out a program for socio-economic development of the
Samtskhe-Javakhketi region.

RESOLUTION

Adopted by the “Integration, not Assimilation” Public Forum on
Socio-economic Issues of Samtskhe-Javakhketi, Akhalkalak, 11 December
2004

Aiming:

* To contribute to resolution of the socio-economic issues of
Samtskhe-Javakhketi;
* To contribute to the improvement of the socio-economic situation of
Georgia through improvement of the socio-economic situation in
Samtskhe-Javakhketi and mitigation of the demographic problems, and to
emphasize the necessity of reforms and their equal implementation on the
basis of regions and ethnicity;
* To contribute to Georgia’s internal integration, internal political
stability and strengthening of democratic values through socio-economic
reforms in Samtskhe-Javakhketi;
* Based on a number of factual factors, such as the demographic picture
of the region and the common borders with Armenia, to contribute to
perceive the resolution of Samtskhe-Javakheti’s socio-economic problems
as the best possible model for regional integration and friendship
between the nations;
* To contribute to the real process of Georgia’s and South Caucasus’
integration into Europe, to participate in the fulfilment of Georgia’s
commitments before the international (European) community, and to make
sure that every citizen gets a share of the positive results of the
process;

Taking into consideration the opinions and ideas expressed in reports
and debates, the Public Forum states that:

* Samtskhe-Javakhketi falls considerably behind the country’s other
regions in its human development indicators;
* The unemployment rate is way too high, resulting in emigration. There
are no equal conditions in filling job vacancies; the region, and
especially the Armenian-populated areas, are not included in any
realizable social and employment projects;
* The health system is deteriorated. There are no functioning medical
ambulatories in the villages. The few district hospitals are poorly
equipped and are far from satisfying the minimum needs of the
population;
* The population’s social security is on a low level. Salaries and
pensions, which are significantly less than the consumer’s basket, are
not paid on time;
* The escalating poverty is accompanied by rising social inequality;
there is a sharp polarization of income;
* There is no functioning stable system (fuel, heating, drinking water
and other utilities) to support the population’s livelihood. The issue
of heating is especially acute in Akhalkalak and Ninotsminda;
* Roads connecting the region with Tbilisi, with the coastal and other
regions of Georgia, as well as with Armenia are damaged and in desperate
shape. In even worse shape are the local and village roads. This
situation creates insurmountable difficulties for the socio-economic
development, as well as for the economic integration of the region;
* The country’s energy crisis is felt especially harsh in the region;
the burden of these difficulties is not equally spread and Javakheti is
again penalized. The fact that the region is distant and mountainous is
neglected;
* Except for one or two cases, there are no telephone networks in the
villages. The situation is not much different in the towns. The
situation is the same for the spheres of electronic communications and
TV broadcasting;
* The agricultural and the industrial sectors are paralyzed. In the
economic and especially in the agricultural sector, many development
possibilities are neglected, even though the region’s agriculture plays
an important role in Georgia’s economy. The almost entirely agricultural
region has no irrigation network. The break up of the economic
infrastructure, the rarity or unavailability of fuel and energy supplies
seriously hinder the processing and selling of natural resources and
agricultural provisions.
* The corruption that exists in the whole country is accentuated in the
region. The reforms proclaimed in the country have not reached the
region yet. As a result there is a public perception that corruption is
not only allowed, but also encouraged;
* The region is pushed to artificial demographic changes which could
result in escalation of tension in ethnic relations and instability. It
is odd, that the authorities organize the immigration of other ethnic
groups to the region and provide them with socio-economic assistance,
while the locals are deprived of such assistance;
* The participation of national minorities in the public-political life
of the country and in formulating socio-economic policies is not
ensured.

The Public Forum, being concerned that:

* The policies being realized by the authorities in the spheres of
state-building, economy, social issues, national minority rights and
demographic issues could undermine Georgia’s image in the international
arena and the development of democracy in the country;
* Unresolved socio-economic and other issues could hinder the
integration of the ethnic minorities;
* The delay in resolving the accumulated problems could raise new and
undesirable tensions;
* The existing tense and explosive situation is aggravated by the
nationalistic and intolerant propaganda by some media outlets and
public-political organizations;

Considers it essential:

* To regard job creation, development of transportation and other
infrastructure (gas pipelines, water lines, irrigation systems,
telecommunications, etc.) as the main route to resolve the region’s
socio-economic problems;
* To completely repair – with internal and external resources — all
highways connecting the region to the coastal areas of Georgia, to
Tbilisi and to Armenia, as well as the internal roads connecting the
villages;
* To equally distribute the burden of the energy hardships between the
regions; to resolve the energy problems using local resources
(Taparvan);
* To expand the telephone network in the villages, ensure quality and
affordable telecommunications;
* To build a modern telecommunications transmitter;
* To create conditions for processing the agricultural products in the
region, implementing of new technologies in agriculture, resolving the
irrigation problems;
* To establish branches of large (including foreign) banks, financial
and credit institutions and to extend loans by them to small and
medium-sized businesses;
* To restore the health system (hospitals, emergency rooms, village
medical ambulatories);
* To renovate and operate the Akhalkalak airport;
* To take steps to create, empower and sustain a tolerant inter-ethnic
environment;
* To take measures to avert the artificial alteration of the demographic
picture of the region, which would endanger the stability of the region;
* To engage the local residents, workforce and potential in the
international economic processes underway in the region;
* To cooperate with international organizations dealing with democracy,
human rights, human development and economic integration; to involve
them actively in resolving the fundamental problems of
Samtskhe-Javakhketi, to ensure fair distribution between regions of
credit and grant funds provided by international organizations;

The Public Forum resolves:

* To recommend to the Council of Armenian non-governmental organizations
(NGO) of the Samtskhe-Javakhketi region to form an expert group in
charge of elaborating and presenting a comprehensive program for the
region’s socio-economic development based on the abovementioned
imperatives;
* To appeal once again to the Georgian central authorities and to the
relevant local self-governing bodies, expecting a multilateral
discussion of the issues in question and their resolution with state
solicitude;
* To appeal to international institutions, donor countries and
organizations, expecting their input in drawing up and implementing
concrete projects aimed at completely or partially resolving the issues
raised;
* To appeal to the Georgian non-governmental organizations and mass
media expecting them to focus on the mentioned issues, to develop
relevant public opinion, to contribute to the efficiency of the
governmental bodies, as well as to assist in engaging the business
community and individual businessmen in resolving the problems raised;
* Based on the centuries-long friendship between the Armenian and
Georgian peoples as well as the good neighbourly high-level relations
between the two states, and aiming at furthering those relations with
practical steps, to appeal to the Armenian non-governmental
organizations to assist in involving the Armenian business community, as
well as individual businessmen and other interested structures in
resolving the issues raised.

OneWorld Country Guides provide a broad introduction to human rights and
sustainable development issues in each country, reflecting the views of
global civil society in general and OneWorld partners in particular.
Armenia short guide
One of the oldest nations in the world, Armenia occupies a fraction of
its ancestral lands. Invaded and subjugated to foreign rule throughout
the centuries, much of Armenia’s present day policies have resulted from
a legacy of oppression and unresolved disputes with its neighbors.
However, as a landlocked country, its potential for economic development
and regional integration has been restricted and more than a million
Armenians have emigrated to seek better lives abroad.
Millennium Development Goals
In August 2003, the Armenian government finalized its long-awaited
Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper which aims to reduce poverty to 19% by
2015. According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the
main challenges facing the Republic include combating poverty, improving
the environment and addressing other pressing social issues.
The education system in Armenia is currently under reform, with a World
Bank-initiated process of `optimization’ causing some concern. Plans to
gradually close the Soviet-era specialized boarding schools for children
with disabilities have been put on hold, as they now also accommodate
normal children from vulnerable families. As with the health sector,
corruption is rampant throughout the education system, with cases of
bribery and gift-giving by students to pass university entrance
examinations.
The emigration of many men to find work in Russia and elsewhere has
resulted in changes to the stereotypical roles of the largely
patriarchal Armenian society. However, the number of women effectively
abandoned by their absentee husbands has increased and domestic violence
is a problem. The UN has only recently begun to address the issue, after
overcoming resistance from within the male-dominated society. There are
also serious concerns over the trafficking of women from Armenia to
Turkey and the United Arab Emirates.
Politics
Armenian politics has been largely stable since independence from the
Soviet Union was declared in 1991, although there have been sporadic
episodes of unrest. In 1996 and 2003, protests against flawed
presidential elections were quickly suppressed and, even in October
1999, when several key members of the Government including the Prime
Minister were assassinated in the Armenian National Assembly, the
situation in the Republic was kept under control.
Even so, there is an increasing risk of instability, stemming from the
lack of progress in democratization since independence and the absence
of a developed civil society in the country. Moreover, the 2003
elections have resulted in a weaker coalition government that, although
united in support of President Robert Kocharian, has nothing else in
common. In recent months, this tension has manifested itself in
inter-party fighting and rivalry.
Since February 2004 opposition parties have boycotted the Armenian
National Assembly in protest at what they consider to be falsified
presidential and parliamentary elections held during 2003. Uncertainty
looms over the succession issue as the incumbent president is
constitutionally disallowed from running for a third term in office.
Human Rights
Compared to its neighbours, Armenia has a reasonable human rights
record. The Republic became largely mono-ethnic after its large
Azerbaijani population left the country at the beginning of the Karabagh
conflict. Currently the rights of national minorities are largely
respected or, at least, the problems they face are similar to those of
most ethnic Armenians.
However, in recent years, there have been concerns regarding the rights
of religious minorities, particularly Jehovah Witnesses who until
recently were refused registration and whose male adherents have been
imprisoned for refusing to take up arms. In 2004, the Armenian
Government finally complied with Council of Europe requirements to
register the organization and introduce alternative service options for
conscripts.
Of more concern, however, is the practice of detention under Soviet-era
laws that generally target opposition supporters and civil rights
activists, especially during periods of possible political instability.
Spurred on by the November 2003 “Rose Revolution” in neighboring
Georgia, opposition political parties combined forces and held peaceful
protest demonstrations in the Armenian capital, Yerevan. In response,
movement into the capital was restricted and police used unnecessary
force to disperse the crowds.
Although the constitution provides for the separation of powers and rule
of law, the President’s ability to appoint and dismiss judges raises
concerns about independence of the judiciary.
Conflict
In 1988, Armenians demanded that Nagorno Karabagh, a mainly Christian
Armenian-populated territory situated within neighboring Moslem
Azerbaijan, be united with Armenia. Pogroms against Armenians living in
Azerbaijan followed and hundreds of thousands of Armenians and Azeris
were forced to flee their respective countries, as the conflict between
the two Republics erupted into a full scale war in 1991.
Approximately 20,000 people died by the time the conflict ended, with a
ceasefire agreement signed in May 1994. Over 1 million refugees were
created on both sides and ethnic Armenian forces now control 14% of what
the international community considers Azerbaijani territory, including
Nagorno Karabagh.
Negotiations to find a lasting peace under the auspices of the
Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe (OSCE) Minsk Group
continue to be held between Armenia and Azerbaijan, but recent attempts
to broker a peace deal have faltered, leading to concerns that war might
break out again in the future and potentially destabilize the entire
Southern Caucasus region.
An ally of Azerbaijan in this conflict is Turkey, a country whose
ambitions for membership of the European Union may hinge on differing
interpretations of history of the First World War. Many European
countries consider the mass killing and starvation of 1.5 million
Armenians under Turkish Ottoman rule to be genocide – a view so far
contested by Turkey.
Health
Faced with severe economic difficulties after the collapse of the Soviet
Union and an out-dated and over-staffed healthcare system, the
independent Armenian government has been unable to guarantee free
healthcare for all. Even though some sections of the population are
entitled to free treatment, a system of informal payments exists and as
a result a sizeable percentage of the population instead resorts to
self- or home-treatment.
Health concerns are mostly limited to reproductive health and multi-drug
resistant tuberculosis, with international organizations such as
Medecins Sans Frontieres supporting treatment and public health
programmes. Infant mortality, which rose significantly in the first
years after independence, has started to stabilize in recent years,
although overall life expectancy has declined.
The number of those officially registered as HIV-positive stands at just
304. However, others believe that the actual figure is 10 times higher.
In December 2004, the United Nations warned that Armenia faces a
“potential disaster” if nothing is done to stop its spread. Access to
free HIV testing is limited, with only one HIV/AIDS center in the capital.
Information and Media
While there is no formal censorship in place, many journalists adhere to
the Soviet practice of self-censorship. In particular, as every
television station is owned or controlled by political and economic
forces close to the President, journalists seldom report news other than
that which fulfills state propaganda purposes.
A1 Plus, an independent television station that provided alternative
news, was taken off the air in April 2002. Despite concerns raised by
the Council of Europe, the station has failed to win any subsequent
tenders for a broadcasting frequency, despite well-reported
irregularities in the tender process itself.
The situation with print media is somewhat better, with a variety of
opinions and political views being represented. However, circulation is
low and mostly confined to the capital, with few newspapers able to
attract a readership of over 3,000 and thus financially reliant on
political figures or businesses with political aspirations.
Access to the internet in Armenia is not restricted and international
organizations are equipping schools with computers and connections. Most
government agencies have their own websites, financed by the
international donor community, and several critical media outlets have
migrated online – unable to disseminate their alternative viewpoints
through the broadcast media.
Nevertheless, in spite of the preponderance of internet cafes, the main
obstacle to wider internet usage is financial and linked to the legally
enforced telecommunications monopoly, ArmenTel.
Economy
The Armenian economy is considered one of the most liberal in the
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Despite a record of strong
economic growth, underpinned by remittances from the large overseas
Armenian diaspora, 44% of the population lives under the national
poverty line. The informal economy accounts for as much as 60% of GDP,
which impacts tax revenue and the state’s financial capacity to improve
public services. The economic blockade set up by Azerbaijan and Turkey
as a result of the unresolved conflict over Nagorno Karabagh poses
another barrier to sustainable economic development.
In recent years, the Armenian Government has also turned its attention
towards promoting tourism, but the necessary infrastructure remains
lacking in the outer regions. There are also concerns that rather than
promoting community-based tourism, existing infrastructure caters mainly
to elite and business travelers.
Environment
Armenia is a largely mountainous country with few natural resources. At
the height of an energy crisis brought on by the economic blockade, many
people resorted to firewood to heat their homes, resulting in rapid
deforestation. The situation was ameliorated somewhat in 1995, when the
Medzamor Nuclear Reactor situated near the Turkish border was
reactivated (it had been closed in the wake of the devastating 1988
earthquake). Although the European Union has repeatedly requested that
the nuclear reactor be shut, the government has refused, citing the lack
of alternative energy sources.
Deforestation continues at an alarming rate, mainly as a result of
illegal export of timber by government-connected businessman and
military officials to Europe and beyond. Desertification affects several
areas, including Yerevan, where government officials have destroyed
parks and other green areas, often illegally, to build cafes,
restaurants and luxurious mansions.
———————–
Onnik Krikorian is a freelance journalist and photographer from the
United Kingdom living and working in the Republic of Armenia for a
variety of publications and organizations.

IN THIS ISSUE:
*** NGO/MEDIA THEMATIC ENCOUNTERS AT AAA NGO CENTER
*** COMMUNITY CENTER OPENS IN GYUMRI
*** FIVE YEARS OF AREVATSAGHIK
*** GOOD WILL, GOOD DEEDS, GOOD RESULTS: INTERREGIONAL VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT
2004
*** SAFE AND RATIONAL USE OF MEDICINE
*** NGOs TO MONITOR ANTI-CORRUPTION STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION
*** PRESENTATION OF THE STOP VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN WEBSITE AND NATIONAL
MONITORING PROJECT
*** NGO/MEDIA THEMATIC ENCOUNTERS AT AAA NGO CENTER
On November 4, AAA NGO Center hosted its regular thematic NGO/Media
encounter titled Diminution Of Unemployment As A Step Towards Poverty
Reduction. These encounters are aimed at raising public awareness on the
diverse problems Armenian NGOs are tackling, NGO sector activities to
address those problems and constraints faced while working towards
solutions. The goal of this seventh encounter was to draw public attention
to Armenian NGO activities aimed at reducing unemployment, with a special
emphasis on the most vulnerable groups of the population – refugees and
disabled people: their vocational training, professional development and job
creation for them. During the encounter, representatives of the Galik
Employment Assistance and Areguni Social Development NGOs made presentations
on involving disabled people in NGO initiatives on unemployment reduction
and Tchambarak region experience in using local resources for reduction of
unemployment among refugees. Other participants included representatives
from NGOs dealing with poverty reduction, Mass Media, and state and
international organizations.
The next thematic encounter, held on November 30, was devoted to the
International Day of AIDS. Vardan Babayan of the Armenian National AIDS
Foundation presented the current HIV/AIDS situation in Armenia and Jina
Sargizova of AAA NGOC spoke about the Capacity Building In HIV/AIDS
Prevention program, jointly implemented by UNFPA, UNDP, UNAIDS, UNICEF, ROA
Ministry of Health, Armenian National AIDS Foundation and AAA NGOC. The
expected outcome of this project is the improved capacity of the Government
and civil society to design and implement effective and well-coordinated
HIV/AIDS work plans and programs at the national, regional and community
levels.
Contact: Margarit Piliposyan
AAA NGO Training and Resource Center
39 Y. Koghbatsi St.
Tel.: 54-40-12, 54-40-13
E-mail: [email protected]
*** COMMUNITY CENTER OPENS IN GYUMRI
On November 2, a new Community Center opened its doors in Gyumri. The
building was renovated by the Norwegian Refugee Council and houses Community
Social-Healthcare and Pedo-Psychological Assistance Centers as well as a
Kindergarten. Services of the Community Social-Healthcare Center will be
provided by Mission Armenia Charitable NGO and are designed to meet the
needs of vulnerable, single, older and disabled people and refugees residing
in temporary dwellings. This integrated center includes a soup kitchen,
social services center, health post, bath and laundry, hairdressing room,
training resource center, conference room and other more.
The soup kitchen will be operational on week-days and provide hot nutritious
meals to about 200 beneficiaries. The social services center will provide
health, psychological, legal trainings and individual consultations. The
in-home services for almost 600 single older residents of Gyumri are one of
the most significant activities to be carried out through the center:
provision of individual care, personal hygiene, medical assistance,
psychological, gerontological and legal assistance, home renovation, heating
of homes, and more. It will also serve as a good place for arranging
cultural events, meetings and round-table discussions. The health post will
provide primary health care and necessary medications to beneficiaries free
of charge. The bath and laundry will meet primary hygienic needs of older
beneficiaries. The hairdressing room will provide relevant services to the
vulnerable. Through the training resource center, computer, hairdressing and
tailoring skills will be transferred to the vulnerable refugee and local
population of the town, providing them an opportunity to acquire new job
skills. Mission Armenia Charitable NGO implements these activities through
funding support received from USAID.
Contact: Hripsime Kirakosyan
Mission Armenia Charitable NGO
42 G. Nzdeh St.
Tel.: (374-1) 44-47-92; 44-47-93
E-mail: [email protected]
Website:
*** FIVE YEARS OF AREVATSAGHIK
November 2, 2004 marked the fifth anniversary of the Bridge of Hope NGO’s
Arevatsaghik (Sunflower) magazine. Today, the periodical is the only one of
its kind in Armenia with a mission of integrating disabled children into
mainstream society. The monthly magazine presents integration opportunities
for disabled children into society and helps develop a positive attitude
towards children with special needs. Children and juveniles with and without
disabilities work together to create the magazine. They develop their
journalistic skills through juvenile journalists training courses held in
the Bridge of Hope’s center. The monthly publication is disseminated in
secondary schools, children’s libraries and other institutions dealing with
children’s issues. Today, the number of readers is 10,000. Arevatsaghik
covers current issues of concern to children and juveniles: disability,
health, education, social, legal and cultural. The monthly has various
rubrics: Brave Spirits; School Mosaics; Discussion Club; Know-All George’s
Corner; Cinema; Your Problem, Our Solution; and more.
Contact: Susanna Tadevosyan
Bridge of Hope NGO
19a Koryun St.
Tel.: (374-1) 56-01-43; 58-91-86
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Website:
*** GOOD WILL, GOOD DEEDS, GOOD RESULTS: INTERREGIONAL VOLUNTEER MOVEMENT
2004
The Good Will, Good Deeds, Good Results yearly interregional events promote
volunteer movement and activities of NGOs as an effective institute to unite
communities in solving their local problems. Participants are NGOs, local
and regional authorities and community members. This year, Good Will, Good
Deeds, Good Results events were organized by the Center for Community
Dialogues and Initiatives NGO on October 28 and 29 in eight regions of the
republic. The registered results are encouraging: 910 events in 25 towns of
Armenia with the participation of 102,000 citizens. Some activities included
free services of dentists, hairdressers, cobblers, cleaning areas, material
assistance, cultural and sports events, and more. One participant said,
“This movement enabled citizens of Armenia to make their practical
contributions in the development of their communities while also conveying
the power of the volunteer movement.”
Contact: Naira Hovhannissyan
Center for Community Dialogues and Initiatives NGO
8 Tumanyan St.
Tel.: (374-1) 58-42-79, 58-42-97
E-mail: [email protected]
Website:
*** SAFE AND RATIONAL USE OF MEDICINE
On November 8, Pharmprogress Youth NGO initiated meeting among its members,
representatives of Health and Social Welfare Department of the Yerevan
Municipality and eight policlinics in Yerevan. These parties are involved in
disseminating instructions for using humanitarian medicines to vulnerable
groups. The meeting was part of the Increasing Awareness On Safe And
Rational Medicine Usage Among Representatives of Economic and Social Risk
Groups in Yerevan project. The cooperating parties have tasked themselves
with ensuring the provision of Armenian and English versions of instructions
of medicines disseminated by Yerevan policlinics to vulnerable groups, and
their participation in training courses on safe usage of medicines.
Participants agreed upon cooperation mechanisms.
Contact: Hrant Danagulyan
Pharmprogress Youth NGO
18 Heratsi St.,
Tel.: (374-1) 57-82-05, 57-82-04
E-mail: [email protected]
Website:
*** NGOs TO MONITOR ANTI-CORRUPTION STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION
On November 24 and December 1, the first sessions of the Protection of
Economic Competition (preventing anti-monopoly and conflict of interest) and
the Healthcare working groups of the ROA Commission on Anti-Corruption
Strategy Monitoring were held. The first working group unites 15 NGOs and
the second 27. Activities of the working groups include: implementing
anti-corruption strategy and monitoring implementation of departmental
anti-corruption projects; studying and summarizing the experiences of
international organizations in anti-corruption efforts, developing
suggestions to improve the mechanisms used, conducting expert review of
legislative drafts, suggesting amendments and submitting those to the
Commission on Anti-Corruption Strategy Monitoring.
Contact: Abgar Yeghoyan: Commission member; Coordinator of the Protection of
Economic Competition working group
E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
Greta Mirzoyan: Commission member; Coordinator of the Healthcare working
group
E-mail: [email protected]
Marianna Stepanyan: Commission exptert
E-mail: [email protected]
*** PRESENTATION OF THE STOP VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN WEBSITE AND NATIONAL
MONITORING PROJECT
The November 25 presentation marked the beginning of a series of events by
the Women’s Rights Center NGO within the framework of the 16 Days of
Activism Against Gender Based Violence. The project is being implemented in
Armenia with the financial support of Network Women’s Program and Open
Society Institute Assistance Foundation – Armenia with the goal of creating
an information source on the problem () and promoting
cooperation among organizations dealing with gender based violence and
drawing the attention of the public and relevant structures to this issue.
The newly-launched internet page () presents links and
resources including the National Plan of Action on the Improvement of
Women’s Situation and the Enhancement of their Role in Society; Research and
Reports; Treaties; Legislative Trends; Women’s NGOs, and more.
Contact: Susanna Vardanyan
Women’s Rights Center NGO
17 Abovyan St., #20
Tel.: (374-1) 58-36-18
E-mail: [email protected]
__________________________________________________________________________
Armenian NGO News in Brief is a publication of the NGO Training and Resource
Center (NGOC) issued in the Armenian, English and Russian languages for
electronic dissemination inside and outside Armenia. Primary funding for the
NGOC, which is a project of the Armenian Assembly of America, is provided by
the United States Agency for International Development (USAID.) Individual
NGOs are welcome to submit information for publication to the NGOC. The NGO
Center is not responsible for the clarity of information provided by
individual NGOs.
Dear Readers,
The not-for-profit, non-governmental sector of Armenia is rich with diverse
civic initiatives and activities. This electronic publication, though far
from covering all activities of the sector per any given time period, is
intended to contribute to raising awareness, both inside and outside
Armenia, of the activities of Armenian not-for-profit, non-governmental
organizations.
Your comments and feedback about this electronic publication are greatly
appreciated.
Thank you.
NGOC staff.
Contact Information:
In Armenia:
Armenian Assembly of America
NGO Training and Resource Center
39 Yeznik Koghbatsi St., Yerevan 375010
Tel.: (3-741) 54-40-12; 54-40-13; 53-92-04
Fax: (3-741) 54-40-15
E-mail: [email protected]
Website:
In the United States:
Armenian Assembly of America
NGO Training and Resource Center
122 C Street NW, Suite 350
Washington, DC 20001 USA
Tel: (202) 393-3434Fax: (202) 638-4904
E-mail: [email protected]
Website:

Soccer-Teenager Manucharyan voted Armenia’s top player
YEREVAN, Dec 14 (Reuters) – Teenage striker Edgar Manucharyan, whose
goals helped Pyunik Yerevan clinch a fourth consecutive Armenian
league title, has been voted the country’s player of the year.
The 17-year-old, currently on trial with Dutch champions Ajax
Amsterdam, scored 21 goals this season to finish as Armenia’s joint
top scorer with team mate Galust Petrosyan.
The pair also led Pyunik to a league and cup double in 2004, their
second such feat in the last three years.
12/14/04 14:07 ET

Le Temps
14 décembre 2004
Européenne, la Turquie? Histoire d’une question sans réponse;
D’Alexandre, le Macédonien hellénisé qui a copié l’Empire perse, à
Soliman le Magnifique tombé sous le charme de la chrétienne Roxelane,
rien n’est simple dans les querelles de frontière entre l’Europe et
l’Asie
La Turquie est-elle un peu, beaucoup, pas du tout européenne? Tout le
monde ou presque a une réponse à cette question, souvent sans nuance
et presque toujours passionnelle. Un regard historique sur la région
aujourd’hui occupée par la Turquie permet de mesurer à la fois son
caractère profondément identitaire et la difficulté qu’il y a à lui
apporter une réponse nette. C’est sur cette terre que s’est définie,
au gré d’affrontements souvent violents, la frontière entre le monde
européen et le monde asiatique. Mais l’exercice consistant à suivre
les déplacements de cette frontière met surtout en évidence les
limites d’une vision du monde faite de blocs homogènes et de
victoires sans partage d’une civilisation sur l’autre.
Dans notre mémoire historique, les guerres médiques, qui opposent
entre 490 et 479 avant notre ère les cités grecques aux Perses font
figure de premier grand affrontement entre une civilisation
européenne et un Empire asiatique. Ce dernier, tenu par la dynastie
achéménide, domine alors une région qui comprend la Macédoine, la
Thrace, l’Egypte et toute l’Asie mineure. Victorieux à Marathon,
Salamine et Platée, les Grecs confortent une identité collective axée
sur la notion de liberté, opposée au despotisme perse. La victoire
est toutefois très relative: les Perses doivent renoncer à prendre
pied en Grèce continentale mais les villes grecques de la côte
asiatique restent sous leur suzeraineté. Et c’est un Macédonien,
Alexandre le Grand (356-323), qui aura raison des Perses.
Fils de Philippe, qui a conquis la Grèce, Alexandre repousse la
frontière du monde hellénique jusqu’aux rives de l’Indus. Pour ce
faire, il se coule dans le moule de l’Empire achéménide. Il reprend
le cérémonial de la Cour impériale, place ses sujets grecs sur pied
d’égalité avec les autres peuples soumis et préside à Suse à une
cérémonie géante dans laquelle 10 000 de ses officiers et de ses
soldats s’unissent à des Asiatiques. Son empire est éphémère, mais
grce aux Etats qui lui succèdent, on parle grec de l’Egypte à la mer
Noire et de la Perse à la Sicile. La civilisation grecque a changé en
s’exportant. Elle est plus axée sur l’individu, incorpore certains
cultes asiatiques. Et c’est une religion née en Asie, le
christianisme, qui finira par détrôner les traditions païennes
héritées de la Grèce antique dans l’Empire romain qui s’installe en
Asie mineure à partir du IIe siècle avant notre ère.
L’empereur qui consacre la transformation de l’Empire romain en
Empire chrétien, Constantin (280-337), donne à Byzance son nouveau
nom de Constantinople, sous lequel elle deviendra la seule capitale
de l’empire après la chute de Rome au milieu du Ve siècle. Au VIe
siècle Justinien entame une reconquête vite interrompue de l’Empire
d’Occident. Ses successeurs ont fort à faire pour défendre leur
territoire contre les Slaves au nord et les Perses à l’est.
En 622, un jeune marchand de la Mecque, persécuté pour la foi
monothéiste qu’il prêche à ses compatriotes, s’enfuit dans la ville
voisine de Yathrib qui prendra en son honneur le nom de Médine (ville
du prophète). A la tête de ses adeptes, Mohammed rentre victorieux à
La Mecque en 630. En 638, les Arabes prennent Jérusalem, en 711 ils
s’installent à Cordoue dont ils feront un centre économique et
culturel d’un rayonnement exceptionnel, en 673 puis en 717 ils sont
sous les murailles de Byzance, en 732, Charles Martel l’emporte sur
eux à Poitiers.
A l’Ouest, l’avance des conquérants musulmans est stoppée. En Asie
mineure, les affrontements ne font que commencer entre Byzance, les
différentes dynasties arabes puis les Seldjoukides, première vague
d’envahisseurs turcs venus d’Asie centrale. D’abord consolidées à
l’est après le second siège de Constantinople, les frontières de
l’empire se rétractent et se redéploient au gré de la fortune des
armes. Les conquérants arabes, puis turcs, laissent en général
subsister les communautés chrétiennes qui acceptent de leur faire
allégeance. Ils ont pour cela une excellente raison: les musulmans
sont dispensés de l’impôt que seuls versent les non musulmans.. Et si
l’islam gagne à terme une majorité des populations d’Asie mineure,
c’est plus en raison de conversions spontanées, parfois sincères et
parfois opportunistes, que de la contrainte.
En 800, Charlemagne, roi des Francs, reçoit la couronne impériale du
pape Léon III. L’émergence d’un successeur officiel de Rome en
Occident signe la fin des rêves byzantins de reconquête. Elle
consacre aussi la dérive vers le nord-ouest du centre de la
civilisation européenne. Une longue lutte pour la prééminence ne va
pas tarder à opposer les successeurs de Charlemagne à la papauté.
Malgré une référence commune au christianisme comme doctrine à la
fois religieuse et politique, les rapports entre pouvoirs temporel et
spirituel se façonnent à l’Ouest sur le mode de l’antagonisme. A
Byzance, si les conflits entre l’empereur et le patriarche ne
manquent pas, le second est nommé par le premier, qui, désigné par
Dieu et maître de toute chose, endosse une double fonction religieuse
et politique à la tête d’une administration fortement centralisée et
minutieusement hiérarchisée. A l’Ouest, les clercs et les lettrés
parlent latin. L’Empire d’Orient, qui tient lieu de bastion européen
contre l’islam, parle grec et se tourne toujours plus vers l’Asie.
Le divorce est consommé en 1054. Les légats du pape venus négocier à
Constantinople un rapprochement avec Rome excommunient le patriarche
Michel Cérulaire, trop intransigeant à leurs yeux. L’empereur brûle
la bulle d’excommunication. Sur le moment, la querelle n’est pas
vécue comme plus définitive que les nombreuses anicroches qui ont
marqué les rapports entre un Saint-Siège parfois vacillant et un
patriarcat peu soucieux de reconnaître la prééminence du premier.
Mais l’union ne se refera plus, malgré une tentative presque aboutie
quatre siècles plus tard, face à la menace turque.
Les croisades, qui débutent en 1095, révèlent et aggravent les
tensions. Même s’ils remportent quelques victoires précieuses contre
les Seldjoukides en Asie mineure, les Croisés sont vus à
Constantinople comme d’encombrants trublions et suscitent dans la
population byzantine des sentiments violemment xénophobes.
L’hostilité éclate au grand jour quand les chevaliers de la quatrième
croisade envahissent Constantinople en 1204, la mettent à sac et s’y
installent pour cinquante-sept ans.
Au même moment à Brousse (l’actuelle Bursa, à une centaine de
kilomètres de Constantinople), une dynastie de conquérants turcs
s’émancipe de la tutelle seldjoukide. Elle prendra le nom de son
premier souverain, Osman. Un siècle plus tard, les Ottomans avancent
victorieusement en Grèce et dans les Balkans. En 1389, ils défont les
Serbes à Kosovopolje et en 1396, ils écrasent sur le Danube une
coalition chrétienne rassemblée à l’appel des Hongrois. Malgré
quelques reconquêtes byzantines, ils sont installés en Europe pour
longtemps. Lorsque Mehmet II met le siège devant Constantinople le 5
avril 1453, la capitale est pratiquement tout ce qui reste de
l’empire.
La chute de la ville le 28 mai provoque une onde de choc dans tout
l’Occident. Si les liens étaient bien distendus avec Byzance, le
remplacement de l’Empire chrétien d’Orient par un Empire musulman est
vécu comme un changement radical. Mais les appels à la croisade
lancés par plusieurs papes dont l’humaniste Pie II resteront vains.
La chrétienté occidentale est divisée depuis qu’en 1521, un moine du
nom de Martin Luther, dont les prédications contre le commerce des
indulgences enflamment l’Allemagne, a été excommunié. Les intérêts
politiques continuent par ailleurs de l’emporter sur l’unité
religieuse. François Ier s’alliera à Soliman le Magnifique contre
Charles Quint, nouant des liens durables entre la France et l’Orient
islamisé.
Au début du XVIIe siècle, l’Empire ottoman, qui a continué ses
conquêtes, comprend la Géorgie, l’Azerbaïdjan, la Syrie et l’Arabie
ainsi que l’Egypte, une bonne partie de l’Afrique du Nord, la Grèce,
la péninsule Balkanique, la Transylvanie et la Hongrie orientale. Les
Turcs mettent deux fois le siège devant Vienne en 1529 et en 1683.
L’islam s’est installé en Europe en successeur de l’Empire byzantin.
Les Ottomans laissent toutefois une autonomie appréciable aux
différentes communautés religieuses. C’est sous leur protection que
se réfugieront de nombreux juifs chassés d’Espagne par les
persécutions d’Isabelle la Catholique. Et s’ils savent se montrer
d’une cruauté sans faille quand c’est nécessaire à la défense de
leurs intérêts, les Turcs s’avèrent parfois des maîtres plus
supportables que les princes chrétiens auxquels ils succèdent,
notamment en Hongrie et dans les Balkans.
A la différence des souverains occidentaux, les Ottomans se méfient
des allégeances familiales. Alors que les premiers construisent leurs
alliances sur le mariage, les sultans n’épousent, par souci
d’indépendance, que des esclaves, enlevées dans les territoires
soumis, notamment chrétiens. L’une d’elle, Roxelane, influencera
durablement Soliman le Magnifique. L’enlèvement ou le tribut
d’enfants exigé des populations européennes sous domination turque
sert de la même manière à alimenter le corps d’élite des Janissaires
et l’administration impériale. La pratique, qui repose sur la mise en
esclavage et la conversion forcée est certes barbare. Elle n’en
aboutit pas moins à l’ascension de plusieurs vizirs d’origine
européenne qui, soumis au pouvoir absolu de leurs maîtres, ont
néanmoins joué un rôle important dans un Etat impérial puissant et,
au début, très performant.
En 1571, la flotte turque est battue par une coalition chrétienne à
Lépante, sur le golfe de Corinthe. Cette victoire de faible
importance stratégique a une portée symbolique considérable: le Turc
n’est pas invincible. A partir du XVIIe siècle, l’Empire ottoman
recule. Plus dures avec les populations soumises, plus corrompues,
plus lourdes et plus séditieuses, l’administration et l’armée
ottomanes amorcent leur déclin.
L’image du Turc a changé en Occident. Au XVIe siècle, des humanistes
comme Erasme et l’Arioste appelaient à la défense des valeurs
européennes contre l’envahisseur musulman. Au siècle des Lumières,
une vision idéalisée du Turc sert volontiers de contre-modèle
permettant de critiquer les gouvernements occidentaux.
Ce n’est pas l’union des chrétiens, ni même des Européens qui a
raison de l’Empire ottoman mais bien, au XIXe siècle, la montée de
l’idée nationaliste, née du libéralisme, qui préside à la même époque
à la naissance de la Belgique et de la Norvège. La Grèce gagne son
indépendance en 1829. L’indépendance de la Serbie et de la Roumanie,
puis la création d’une grande Bulgarie au Traité de San Stefano en
1878 consacrent une prise d’influence du tsar dans la région, en
partie corrigée la même année au Congrès de Berlin. L’Empire ottoman
est «l’homme malade de l’Europe», une région où l’affaiblissement du
pouvoir crée un vide politique susceptible de modifier l’équilibre
des forces entre puissances européennes.
Face à ces assauts, le sultan Abdul-Mejid initie en 1839 un train de
réformes qui seront vite mises entre parenthèses par son successeur
Abdul Hamid II. La révolte gronde dans les milieux intellectuels et
dans l’armée, débarrassée des Janissaires depuis 1826. De jeunes
officiers rêvent de redressement national ou de reconquête. Ils ont
lu Descartes et Voltaire et portent un regard sans complaisance sur
la décomposition de l’Etat ottoman. Contre l’image d’un sultanat
décadent, imprégné d’influence arabo-persane, ils redéfinissent
l’identité nationale turque, lui cherchant des racines et, pour
certains, une zone d’influence en Asie centrale. Le mouvement jeune
turc, qui signera peu glorieusement son passage au pouvoir par le
massacre des populations arméniennes à partir de 1915, naît dans
cette mouvance. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk y forme sa pensée politique.
L’effondrement de l’empire au lendemain de la Première Guerre
mondiale lui fournit l’occasion de l’imposer. Militairement d’abord,
contre les armées grecques qui ont envahi, dans la foulée de la
défaite des empires centraux, la plus belle partie de l’Asie mineure,
puis politiquement.
L’Etat turc qu’il construit à partir de 1920 s’inspire du principe
des nationalités qui a triomphé de l’Empire ottoman. Tournant le dos
à l’idée impériale, il postule une identité nationale
turco-anatolienne qui sera défendue sans quartiers contre les
ambitions nationales des Kurdes. Il opte résolument pour le
modernisme: entre 1922 et 1934, il abolit le port du voile et du
turban, il remplace la charia par le Code civil suisse et le Code
pénal italien, remplace l’alphabet arabe par l’alphabet latin, impose
aux citoyens turcs d’adopter des noms de famille et, finalement,
octroie le droit de vote aux femmes dix ans avant la France et
trente-sept ans avant la Suisse.
L’histoire de la Turquie moderne depuis la mort d’Atatürk en 1938
peut être considérée comme celle de l’assimilation démocratique des
principes laïques et républicains qu’il avait imposés. Elle est faite
d’alternance entre des périodes libérales, marquées par le
renforcement des différences sociales et économiques et la montée en
puissance de l’islam, et des reprises en main par l’armée. Ces
dernières ont pu être vigoureuses, elles ont toutes été temporaires
et le pouvoir a toujours été remis dans les mains de gouvernements
civils élus démocratiquement, la dernière fois en 1983.
Aujourd’hui, si les plus doctrinaires des kémalistes voient dans les
réformes exigées par Bruxelles un affaiblissement dangereux du
dispositif de protection de la laïcité, les plus optimistes
considèrent la marche forcée vers l’Europe entreprise par le premier
ministre islamiste Erdogan comme la preuve que la greffe a
définitivement pris. Quant à la frontière, c’est aujourd’hui aux
chefs d’Etat européens de dire où elle passera demain.