Al-Ahram Weekly, Egypt
May 5 2005
Al-Ahram: A Diwan of contemporary life (595)
Who’s who
Mohamed Ali, the founder of modern Egypt, did not work alone. He was
helped by many trusted aides, 30 of whom we introduce to mark the
bicentennial of his accession to the throne. In part seven of this
nine-part series, Professor Yunan Labib Rizk presents the men who
pitched in Mohamed Ali’s colossal reform drive.
Among the plethora of documents and articles that appeared in
Al-Ahram’s edition, commemorating hundred years since the death of
Mohamed Ali, was a kind of who’s who of his times. “The eminent figures
of his age”, as this item was called, was a collective endeavour by
the Al-Ahram editorial staff, whose policy it was to solicit studies
and commentaries on the Mohamed Ali phenomenon from outside sources
and produce factual supplementary material themselves. This, however,
is not to underestimate the value of the encyclopedic entries they
collected on the persons who shaped the era of the founder of modern
Egypt.
Today’s readers may be struck by how few Egyptians made it onto the
list. It is important to bear in mind, however, that for centuries
before the advent of Mohamed Ali Egyptians had little to say in the
running of their country, relegated as they were in general to farming
the land. It was Mohamed Ali who set into motion the processes that
would eventually lead Egyptians into key positions in government and
the military.
Readers will also be struck by the odd melange of foreigners on the
list — Circassians, Armenians, Albanians and Europeans for the most
part. But then, perhaps the boundaries between foreign and Egyptian
were not so clear cut in those days. In all events, most of these,
like Egyptians, were Ottoman subjects. More importantly, as Al-Ahram
notes in its introduction to this article on “the eminent figures in
the age of Mohamed Ali, the architect, standard bearer and inspirer
of the Egyptian renaissance”, the very diversity of these individuals
seemed proof of the fact that “this great reformer was bent on a
single purpose, which was to carry out his reform programme, towards
which end he engaged those he regarded as best qualified to assist him,
regardless of their national origins or religious affiliations. Of the
many individuals who appeared in this catalogue, of the great men of
Egypt of the early 19th century, we have chosen the following 30:
El-Sayed Omar Makram, Naqib Al-Ashraf (head of the Descendants of the
Prophet) : Born in Assiout circa 1755, he was educated at Al-Azhar.
Instead of joining the university’s teaching staff after graduation
he involved himself in public affairs. He mediated on behalf of Murad
Bek and Ibrahim when Hassan El-Jazairli came to discipline them for
insurrection against the Ottoman Empire. When the French invaded Egypt,
Omar Makram was at the vanguard of the Egyptians that rose to defend
their country. Following the defeat of the Mamelukes, he fled for fear
of being hunted out for revenge by the occupiers. Bonaparte ordered
that Makram be welcomed back to Egypt with full honours. In 1805,
Makram declared his support for Mohamed Ali and helped him thwart the
conspiracies to either kill him or have him expelled from Egypt. Later,
however, he and Mohamed Ali fell into dispute over taxation matters,
and Mohamed Ali had him exiled. He died in 1822.
Mohamed Bek the Defterdar: An in-law of Mohamed Ali and one of his
most trusted friends, he was appointed defterdar (senior financial
administrator) soon after Mohamed Ali’s rise to power. He was
noted for his valour, gallantry and intelligence. However, these
qualities were eventually overshadowed by the reputation he acquired
when avenging the death of Mohamed Ali’s son, Ismail, in Sudan. His
massacre of some 20,000 people, many of whom were subjected to cruel
and diabolic forms of torture before their death, earned him widespread
censure for his brutality. He conquered Sudan at the head of an army
of 30,000. During this disciplinary campaign he had a map drawn up
of the areas through which he passed. The map was widely admired for
its detail and precision. Later, he was made a member of the National
Geographic Society in Paris. He died in 1822.
Mohamed Bek Lazuglu: Katkhouda, or deputy viceroy of Egypt. One of
Mohamed Ali’s closest aides at the outset of his reign, he acted as
charge d’affaires for Mohamed Ali when the pasha travelled to the
Hijaz. Ever vigilant to protect the rights of the Mohamed Ali family,
when Latif Pasha returned from Istanbul to instigate a coup d’état,
Lazuglu foiled the conspiracy. He succeeded in luring Latif Pasha
into a trap and killing him, after which he drove Latif’s army into
the sea. He was born in Egypt and died poor.
Youssef Boghus: Took up residence in Rashid following the death
of his father. However, he fled to Izmir following the French
invasion of Egypt and only returned after they left. Accused of
squandering Mohamed Ali’s money, he was sentenced to death. However,
the sentence was not carried out because Boghus had performed a number
of services for the executioner. Several days later, the executioner
learned that Mohamed Ali had come to regret issuing the order to have
Boghus killed. He brought Boghus in to the pasha and Boghus begged
forgiveness, which his master granted. Since that time, Boghus never
left the pasha’s side. He was his translator, minister of foreign
affairs and minister of trade. On one occasion, Mohamed Ali said,
“Boghus is the only man whom I trust completely and can fully depend
on”. Because of this confidence Boghus had great influence and his
opinion always prevailed. When he died in 1844, Mohamed Ali ordered
an official funerary procession.
Youssef Kamel Pasha: Son-in-law of Mohamed Ali through his marriage of
Mohamed Ali’s daughter, Princess Zeinab, in 1846. Before his marriage
he had occupied a key government position. Under the Khedive Abbas
(viceroy from 1848-1854) he was appointed minister of education to
replace Adham Bek, but was soon dismissed. He then took up residence
in Istanbul, where he rose through government ranks until he became
Grand Vizier. Kamel Pasha was a highly erudite man and a poet. He
wrote a history entitled Kamal al-Kamal (The Perfection of Perfection)
and translated Telemac into Turkish. He died in 1876.
Motosh Pasha: His real name was Mustafa; however, it was the custom
among some peoples of Anatolia and Macedonia to abbreviate names.
Thus, Mustafa was shortened to Motosh. Before coming to Egypt he
worked on trading vessels. Appointed admiral of the navy by Mohamed
Ali, he took part in the campaign against Acre. When Osman Noureddin
resigned, Mohamed Ali elevated him to Chief-Admiral of the Egyptian
navy. He held this post until he died in 1843.
Ismail Jabal Tareq (Gibraltar): The first fleet admiral of the
Egyptian navy. Of Turkish origin, he learned several languages and
was highly erudite, even if his knowledge of naval matters was weak.
He fell in Rhodes and died on board the ship that was taking him to
Alexandria. As the ship approached the port of Damiatte, his body
was placed in a wooden coffin and thrown into the sea. However, the
coffin did not sink and was carried by the waves onto the shore. It
was fished out of the water and he was buried on land.
Mohou Bek: Again, the Turkish custom was to use an abbreviated form
for Mohamed. Originally from the land of the Kurds, Mohou Bek was a
close friend of Mohamed Ali who charged him with dangerous secret
missions to be carried out along the northern Syrian border. His
success was such that the sultan mistrusted his presence among the
Kurdish tribes and demanded he be relocated. Mohou Bek succeeded
Othman Bek as governor-general of Sudan. Regarded there as a just and
merciful ruler, he built the army barracks in Khartoum and had wells
dug along the desert roads remote from the Nile to serve the people
and travelling caravans.
Muharrem Bek: An in-law of Mohamed Ali. Initially inspector of the
construction of the naval yard, he became governor of Alexandria and
then chief admiral of the Egyptian navy. Although he was not known
for any particular naval engagement, he bequeathed to us a translation
into Turkish of the Egyptian naval regulations. He died in 1847. The
vast gardens of his palace in Alexandria became an attraction for
foreign tourists who would spend their idle afternoons there until
sunset. The neighbourhood that now stands there still bears his name.
Artin Bek: A member of the first study mission sent by Mohamed Ali
to Paris. When he returned from France after completing his studies
in law and administration he was appointed dean of the School of
Engineering in Boulaq. He then became first secretary and translator
for Mohamed Ali. Following the death of Boughous, he was appointed
minister of foreign affairs. The British consul called him deceitful
and an intriguer; however, the French praised him highly and he was
one of their greatest supporters.
Suleyman Pasha (Colonel Sèves): Originally an officer in the army
of Napoleon who served in the Battle of Waterloo. In 1819 he came to
Egypt where Mohamed Ali charged him with searching for coal mines in
the Eastern Desert and then with modernising the organisation of the
Egyptian army. To him goes the credit for training the first Egyptian
army. After his conversion to Islam, he took part in the Morea battle
to supress the revolt of the Greeks of Morea, and married a Greek
captive. He also took part in the first Syrian campaign, after which he
returned to Egypt to organise the school system. In 1837 he returned
to Syria to quell the Druze uprising and to reorganise the Egyptian
army preparatory for the decisive battle. It was he who devised the
strategy that led to the defeat of Ottoman forces at Nezib. After this
battle, however, he fell out with Ibrahim Pasha and asked to return
to Egypt. Mohamed Ali refused the request because of the delicacy
of the military situation. Following the Treaty of London in 1840,
Suleyman Pasha retired to a quiet life in his palace overlooking the
Nile. In 1845, he travelled to France in the company of Ibrahim Pasha.
Khurshid Pasha: His was a life teeming with heroism and valiant
deeds. Among the Mamelukes to enter into military service under
Mohamed Ali, he was appointed governor of Sinar in 1830 and then
deputy minister of war in 1835 after having been granted the rank
of Bek. Two years later he returned to Sudan to take up the post
of governor-general. He was, indubitably, one of the greatest, most
widely reputed, most fondly remembered and longest lived governors
of Sudan. He was indefatigable in his efforts to develop Sudan and
ensure the safety of the lives and property of its people. He urbanised
the city of Khartoum, in which he introduced construction with brick
and wood, and he expanded Sudanese agriculture. Before returning the
Sudan, Mohamed Ali elevated him to the rank of pasha. He remained in
Sudan until 1837, when he was appointed minister of war. In addition
to restructuring that ministry, he waged war on bribery, sloth and
negligence. In 1838, he was obliged to go to the Hijaz to put down
the rebel movement. His swift and astounding success at this deeply
disturbed the British. Khurshid Pasha worshipped Mohamed Ali but he,
in turn, was loved and admired by all members of the army.
Mustafa Bahgat Pasha: A famous engineer, he received his primary
education at Qasr Al-Aini Preparatory School and then joined the
School of Engineering. He was a member of the first study mission to
France. Upon his return, he was appointed dean of Qasr Al-Aini then
dean of the Artillery Academy in Tura. Later he became chief engineer
of public works, in which capacity he was charged with facilitating
navigation of the Nile cataracts. He also worked on the barrages
construction project. He died towards the end of the reign of the
Khedive Ismail.
Hassan El-Iskandarani: Born on the banks of the Black Sea in 1790, he
came to Egypt in 1800. Mohamed Ali took him under his wing and employed
him in the palace. Eventually, however, he stated his desire to join
the navy. So, in 1817, Mohamed Ali included him in a study mission to
France. Following his graduation from the Naval Academy at Toulon,
he undertook three scientific expeditions on French vessels, in the
course of which he visited Brazil, Norway and Sweden. Upon his return
to Egypt in 1825, he commanded several Egyptian ships and took part in
the naval campaign against Greece. In the famous Battle of Navarino,
his ship exploded and he was spared death only by a miracle. In 1835,
he was appointed Vice Admiral of the Egyptian Navy. He drowned at
sea in 1852 during the Russian war.
Mustafa Mukhtar (Mohtar) Bek: The first minister of education in
Egypt, he was a member of the first educational mission to France
and one of its three leaders. In addition to his keen intelligence,
he was noted for his inexhaustible energy, enthusiasm and scholastic
inquisitiveness. He was appointed minister of education in 1837;
however he did not serve long in this capacity for he died in 1839.
Foreigners praised him highly, but it was his overindulgence in food
and drink that hastened his death. He did not possess the excellent
literary aptitude of most of his peers on the first educational
mission, such as Rifaa El-Tahtawi.
Ahmed El-Mnikli Pasha: One of the great Egyptian commanders, he was
reputed for his rare courage and profound devotion to Ibrahim Pasha.
He was independent-minded and outspoken, so much so that Mohamed Ali
once asked Ibrahim Pasha to “punish Ahmed El-Mnikli for his insolence
in his correspondence”. He was seriously wounded in the war against
the Druze in 1838. After recuperating, he led the Egyptian infantry in
the Battle of Nezib. Upon El-Mnikli’s return from Syria, Mohamed Ali
engaged him in various administrative positions. In 1846, Mohamed
Ali sent him to Sudan to organise the government administration
there. Upon assuming the throne in 1848, Ibrahim Pasha appointed
El-Mnikli as minister of war and charged him with restructuring the
army. Following Ibrahim’s death, he was dismissed by Abbas I.
Hakakian Bek: Following the completion of his studies in public
engineering in Britain, he returned to Egypt where, in 1836, he was
appointed engineer of the paper factory. Two years later, he received
the rank of bek and his brother-in-law recommended to Mohamed Ali that
he replace the French engineer Linan. In 1842, Ibrahim Pasha suggested
appointing Hakakian as supervisor of the construction of fortifications
in Alexandria, on the grounds that Hakakian had specialised in this
field of engineering during his eight years of study in England.
Mohamed Mazhar Pasha: A member of the first educational mission to
Paris, Mazhar specialised in maths and engineering, at which studies
he excelled, earning the praise of his instructors. Upon his return
to Egypt he was appointed dean of the Artillery Academy in Tura. He
built the Alexandria lighthouse, worked with the French engineer Mugel
in the construction of the Qanater Kheiriya barrages and supervised
the construction of the barrages on the Rashid branch of the Nile.
Ahmed Pasha Yegen: Son of Mohamed Ali’s sister, he led the Egyptian
campaign against the Hijaz in 1834, but failed to completely quell
the rebellion. He was not well trained in military sciences. He was
appointed director of the Buheira directorate, however Mohamed Ali
suspended him soon afterwards, ordering an investigation into matters
pertaining to his financial management. In 1848, he was appointed
minister of war. Following Mohamed Ali’s death, the Ottoman sultan
appointed Yegen viceroy of Damascus. Yegen travelled to Istanbul to
plead his inability to accept the post.
ï Salim Fathi Pasha: Famous for his part in the Crimean War,
his star shone in the Battle of Obatoria. In the Mohamed Ali era,
he first served as dean of the General Staff College then, in 1848,
he was appointed commander of the infantry forces. Of all the military
leaders, he was closest to the model of European sophistication.
Osman Nureddin Pasha: One of Mohamed Ali’s Mamelukes. Admired by the
Pasha for his intelligence and diligence, he was sent to Italy and
France to be educated in the naval sciences and foreign languages.
Upon his return to Egypt, he supervised translation activities, as
well as the army, navy and administration. He had Mohamed Ali’s full
trust and confidence and he worked well with the foreigners, engaged
in government administration, who appreciated his treatment of them.
His last post in Egypt was commander of the Egyptian fleet. However,
his failure to surround and defeat the Ottoman fleet at Rhodes,
enabling the fleet to flee back to Istanbul, incurred Mohamed Ali’s
wrath. Perhaps fearing the consequences of the viceroy’s anger,
he took the occasion of the rebellion in Crete and Mohamed Ali’s
preoccupation with quelling the rebellion to tender his resignation.
He then travelled to Istanbul where he was appointed to a high
government post. He died a year later of plague.
Omar Bek: An Italian chemist, who assumed an Arabic name, he found a
new method for extracting saltpetre without the need for firewood,
using the heat from the sun instead. He founded a large saltpetre
plant at Badrashin and using his new process succeeded in reducing
costs from 10 to 0.4 piastres a kilogramme. Mohamed Ali expressed
his gratitude through generous financial rewards and by bestowing on
him the rank of bek. A French official said Omar Bek that he was the
happiest foreigner in Egypt.
Cerisy Bek: The architect of the Egyptian navy yard and fleet.
Mohamed Ali famously said of him, “France sent us the genius who
within the space of three years created a great fleet and a vast
arsenal”. Cerisy Bek arrived in Egypt in 1829. Before then, he
had constructed several ships that Mohamed Ali had commissioned in
Toulon. When Mohamed Ali asked the government of France for someone
to help him build the Alexandria naval arsenal, France selected
Cerisy. Mohamed Ali gave him full powers to complete the work in the
shortest time possible, and he furnished him with all the material
assistance he required. In 1835, a quarrel between Cerisy Bek and
Bisson Bek led the former to tender his resignation. Mohamed Ali tried
in vain to persuade the French engineer to withdraw his resignation
and deeply regretted his sudden decision.
Bisson Bek: French sea captain who was pensioned off because of his
political leanings. He claimed that following Napoleon’s defeat at
Waterloo, he offered to take Napoleon to the US on his (Bisson’s)
ship. When Mohamed Ali decided to build a navy, he asked France to loan
him some naval officers. The French consul suggested to Bisson that
he volunteer and Bisson agreed. Bisson performed great services in the
Egyptian navy, for which he was rewarded the post of vice admiral. He
shared the command of the Egyptian fleet with Admiral Othman Nureddin
Pasha, Admiral Mutash Bek and Admiral Muharram. He died in 1837.
Mugel Bek: Mohamed Ali brought over this French public works
engineer to upgrade the port in Alexandria. Pleased by Mugel’s work
he commissioned him to design the Qanater Kheiriya barrages. Mugel
produced an entirely different project than that which Linan, the
person who had been initially charged with this task, had designed.
When Abbas I suspended work on the barrages due to lack of funds,
Mugel returned to France.
Lampert Bek: French engineer who came to Egypt with the SaintSimonians
and remained in the country after they left. He entered the service
of the Egyptian government, and was appointed dean of the School
of Engineering, after having participated in the Qanater Kheiriya
barrage project. In 1849, he was promoted to amiralay and was granted
the title bek. He left Egypt immediately following Mohamed Ali’s death.
Jomil: A Frenchman brought over by Mohamed Ali to reorganise the
textile industry. One day while in Mohou Bek’s garden, he came across a
high-quality fibre breed of cotton. He advised Mohamed Ali to augment
the cultivation of this breed throughout the country. It later became
known in Europe as Jomil and in Egypt as Mohou cotton.
Hamoun: French veterinarian who came to Egypt to help establish
the School of Veterinary Sciences. He spoke Arabic fluently and was
highly skillful in his work. However, he was brought up on charges
of bribery and sentenced to banishment from Egypt. Hamoun avenged
himself by publishing a book in which he lashed out against the
policies of Mohamed Ali and against the Egyptian people in general.
While still in Egypt his rivalry with Clot Bek was so intense that
it evolved into a bitter enmity.
Clot Bek: He arrived in Egypt in 1824 to assume the post of chief
physician for the Egyptian army. He was stationed at Abu Zaabel. When
he realised how poor the general level of the soldiers’ health was
he persuaded Mohamed Lazuglu to build a new hospital and then to
found a national medical college to enable Egypt to free itself of
dependency upon foreign doctors. Clot Bek assumed responsibility
for these tasks and ultimately succeeded after overcoming many
difficulties. In 1837, the hospital and medical college he founded in
Abu Zaabel were relocated to Qasr Al-Aini Palace. During his visit
to Europe in 1839, he campaigned on behalf of Mohamed Ali and also
published his invaluable Overview of Egypt, which had a great impact
among political circles. It was he, too, who recommended moving the
insane asylum from the Baimaristan to the new civil hospital that he
established in Ezbekiya. He also founded an institute for midwifery
and trained 10 Ethiopian women in this art. He was resolute in his
fight against cholera, however, he mistakenly believed that the
disease was not contagious.
Linan de Bellefont: Although he came to Egypt as an employee of
the British Royal Geographic Society, he entered into the service
of Mohamed Ali as an irrigation engineer. In this capacity,
he supervised the construction of numerous small canals. He also
produced a large map, highlighting the works Mohamed Ali undertook
to improve irrigation in Egypt. In 1836, Mohamed Ali assigned him to
supervise the construction of the Qanater Kheiriya barrages. However,
his lack of experience led to its initial failure. In 1838, Artin Bek
persuaded Mohamed Ali to hand de Bellefont’s post to Hakakian Bek.
Upon intervention of the French consul and many members of the French
community in Egypt, Mohamed Ali reversed his decision. In 1846, Linan
was awarded the rank of bek. He married two women, one Ethiopian,
the other Oriental. He produced an enormous volume on the public
works undertaken by Mohamed Ali and his descendants.
–Boundary_(ID_Yzvh7g/xaRCI7hDWuLoAVw)–
From: Emil Lazarian | Ararat NewsPress