Counting on Success: A family takes to the hills to master the art of sheep
farming
armenia.now.com
23 july 2004
By Julia Hakobyan ArmeniaNow reporter
On a foot of a hill near Lake Sevan, where four-legged creatures
vastly outnumber the upright, an Armenian family has found a new home
and a chance for well being.
The Ghalichyan family left their home in Shorzha village two years ago
for the sake of their sheep, for grassland and vast expanses, and for
the chance to harmonize with nature.
Roam with a view
“We chose a place near pasture and a spring and built a house and
cattlepen,” says the head of the family Edik Ghalichyan. “We have
here all that is needed for living: shelter, food, work. We installed
electricity, built a bath and a basement for keeping food. The only
thing what we don’t have are neighbors, but by now we’ve gotten used
to it.”
Ghalichayn, 58, his wife Yunik, their two sons with their families
made the decision to go to the mountains on an invitation from the
Tufenkian Foundation.
Four years ago the foundation launched “Sheep Farms”, a project that
promotes livestock breeding and offers farmers a way establish livable
business.
The foundation (established in 1996 by U.S. businessman James
Tufenkian) distributed 258 sheep (eight rams and 250 ewes) among 10
families in each of four villages in Gegharkunik Region. Each group of
10 families also received a $4,500 loan for maintenance of the
heard. The families agreed to pay back the money and return a
same-sized herd within five years.
The Ghalichyans may turn out to be an exception in a program that has
proved challenging. Their individual herd (some 300) is bigger than
the collective herd from four years ago.
The Ghalichyans settled near grazing land
“We didn’t intend to leave the village in the beginning,” says
Ghalichyan.
“But a big herd needs a big pasture. We had to take the herd each day
to the mountains, several kilometers from our house and stay there the
all day long. And once I came here with the sheep and decided to
stay.”
It was not an easy decision to live communal village life for the
savage landscape and a herd of sheep. But the family was experiencing
financial hardships as most of the villagers and the idea of having
their own farm prevailed over the fear of social isolation.
The transition from small herd to family business has not been
easy. For example, brucellosis spread in the herd, and the
Ghalichyan’s had to destroy half their stock.
“We had been keeping sheep before, but taking care of such a big herd
caused many unexpected problems,” says Yunik, 52. “It took over two
years to learn all the details of farming from our own mistakes.”
Yunik says that they learned among other things that the first portion
of milk causes death for newborn lambs, a detail that they did not
know before.
“When we had a small herd while in our village and some lambs were
dying it did not disturb us, but now since we have a big herd the
death of lambs is very harmful for the further herd development,” she
says.
Even though the herd has increased, the Ghalichyans have not yet
turned a profit. The seed money from the foundation covers expense for
80 tons of hay for feed during winter. Money made from selling wool
goes to cover costs of renovating sheep pens and buying vaccinations.
“We could not imagine how hard it would be to develop the farm,” says
Edik, “however we do not regret that we are here. Life was easy in
Soviet times, nowadays it is hard, but if you are ready to work hard
you will survive anywhere and in any times. Now we see the results of
our work and I hope soon our sheep will bring us profit”
The Ghalichyans also have cows, turkeys, hens and cover their daily
ration by trading milk, cheese and mutton for household necessities.
Samvel Gevorgyan, manager of Sheep Farm Project says that the project
implementation caused unexpected problems for the organizers as well.
The foundation founder and the flock
Gevorgyan says that they chose Gegharkunik as the most economically
area economically for the project, however could not expect that
farmers would have problems with farming.
Now, however: “Our experience in working with farmers demonstrates
that the villagers were not ready to work,” he says. “They experience
difficulties which we did not expect and for most families that work
appeared to be too hard.”
Only eight families (including Ghalichyan’s) out of the initial 40
succeeded to maintain the herds they got.
“In some cases the heads of the villages were not eager to cooperate
with us and were hindering the works of the families,” Gevorgyan
says. “It is because they do not have a clear idea what the contract
is, that we give loans, not money. We regularly organize meetings with
villagers to explain the project, their responsibilities and
duties. We hope that Armenian farmers will realize the advantages of
having their own farms.”
As for Ghalichyan family they hope they will manage to return the loan
and herd to foundation. The head of the family says that he would work
as hard as possible to secure the life of his family. Edik hopes that
his grandsons and their families would inherit his farm and the small
oasis in the mountain would become a successful family enterprise.
From: Emil Lazarian | Ararat NewsPress

Struggle in Paradise: A visit to “the best village in the world”
armenianow.com
23 July 2004
By Gayane Lazarian
ArmeniaNow reporter
Pink shades of sunset mix with the cyanic waters of Lake Sevan,
wrapping this world in azure gauze. Tireless white waves slap against
moss covered stones, breaking silence with the noise.
For 40 years, 70-year-old Knar has been leaning against rocks in her
yard and looking at the lake for hours, listening to new stories from
the endless waves. Her eyes are little lakes, but they are not calm,
as if they are looking for something that has gone.
Rest houses await new owners
“This lake has gone and never ran high again. Many years ago it would
reach that slope. My husband would sit on those stones and fish,” she
wistfully recalls.
Knar lives with her son, daughter-in-law and three grandchildren in
Ayrivank village of Gegharkunik Region. The entire village is located
on the ridge.
Big stone pieces that can be seen in different parts of the village
prove that once waters of Sevan used to reach here.
Knar points at the ridge located in front of her in the left side,
where Ayrivank monastery dated 10 th-12 th centuries proudly
stands. Crossing her face she says their village was named after the
monastery – “Ayrivank”.
Ayrivank church doesn’t function, however, villagers visit it, pray
there and light candles. Wedding and baptism ceremonies are carried
out there. But there are no clergymen.
“The important is that the monastery exists so we don’t need priests,”
says Knar laughing.
About 820 residents of Ayrivank share God above and the lake,
monastery and forest below. Yerevan is 190 kilometers away.
With the water level, the view of the lake changes. So, too, the
population of Ayrivank has receeded. Many of its able-bodied men have
gone abroad to find work and help their families from afar.
“But I will never leave the village even if there are the worst
conditions here,” says villager Anton Virabyan. “I cannot live without
this village, this lake. This is a completely different world.”
Ayrivank village was founded in 1922 when 13 families from neighboring
Noraduz village moved there. One year later eight more families joined
them.
Head of the village Garnik Badoyan says his grandfather was one of the
first. This year residents are planning to build a khachkar next to
the spring located in the center of the village where they will
immortalize the names of founders.
Head of the village talks about newborns of the village with joy but
at the same time he recalls with regret those who left.
“People leave everything and leave the village. Mainly people of this
region go to Volgograd,” he says. There’s even a joke that Volgograd
is the capital of the region.
Despite its conditions, Ayrivank is better off than many villages in
the region. Roads of the village have been reconstructed, there is no
drinking water problem and the village is served with natural gas.
“The main problem of Ayrivank is the lack of irrigation water. We use
drinking water for irrigation,” Badoyan says. “Now we are working on
deep pits and we have already dug one. After some investments, a 700
meter-long water pipe-line will be constructed and it will be
connected to an internal network constructed during Soviet times. We
need financing. We wait for assistance from the government.”
Julieta Avetisyan, 40, is Knar’s daughter-in-law. She says majority of
villagers work for barter. They bring fruits and vegetables from other
regions and change them for cheese, matsun, milk and potatoes at a
market.
Before, Julieta used to work with her neighbors at the Ayrivank Sewing
Factory, which no longer is functioning. Today she spends most of her
time in the forest collecting nuts.
“I go to the forest with children and Knar and we collect acorns until
it becomes dark,” Julieta says. “We sell one sack of nuts for 250-300
drams (about 50-60 cents) in Noraduz to those who prepare smoked
fish. They say fish smoked on nuts has better taste. At least we get
money.”
Many people in Ayrivank found work on the water.
Knar and family
One of the village’s teachers, 42-year-old Melania Manukyan says: “In
my house, windows face the lake. Every morning I count small ships
that appear in the lake and I become happy as people here live thanks
to that.”
She says soon fishermen she knows will bring fresh whitefish for her
guests from Yerevan. They sell fish on-site for 20-30 drams (about 4-6
cents) each.
Mainly people come and buy fish right from the village. They sell
crawfish, too, at 100 drams (about 20 cents) per kilo.
“We have a businessman in the village, who consigns crawfish to
Holland and France. The taste of Sevan crawfish is different,” says
Melania.
Virabyan says trout was the real fish of their ancestors and before
trout there were beghlu and bakhtak which today have become
extinct. Nobody knows how whitefish appeared here.
“Trout is tasty when you make it in the tonir (stone oven),” he
explains.
“Usually people catch trout and whitefish with different seine nets
but sometimes trout is entrapped in seine nets designed for
whitefish.”
Many villagers have placed tin cottages on the shore and rent them out
at about 4,000-5,000 drams (about $7.50-9.50) a night.
David, a 20-year old villager, uses his fishing boat for giving tours
of the lake. As he talks to a guest, he is also trying to start the
engine. He keeps talking, but the engine doesn’t.
“Sometimes it happens,” he says. “You should see how people become
nervous when it happens far away from the shore. But it is not a
problem as I have paddles and I return them rowing up towards the
shore and don’t take money from them if something like this happens.”
Visitors can also rent pedal boats for 2,000 drams an hour (about
$3.80).
They have no risk of engine failure.
The village has potential as a tourist destination. However, three
hotels, privatized since independence, sit empty or unfinished in
Ayrivank.
“They are all old Soviet constructions designed for 400 people and all
of them require investments. It is not possible to use them in such
conditions,” Badoyan says. “I, myself, look for investors, who will
make this business together with me. There was a time when these
hotels had been functioning for 25 years and in case they are reopened
people again will have work, which is the biggest problem today.”
Children of Ayrivank are unusually beautiful. They are fair-haired and
have blue eyes that shine from under long eyelashes. The sun has
perfectly painted their cheeks into a red-scarlet color. They look
bravely but are shy to talk with strangers.
Melania says there is nothing interesting for children in the village,
there is nothing for them to spend their time there. There are no
clubs, no kindergartens in Ayrivank; there is no cultural center
there.
But 200 children attend the school in Ayrivank, including those who
come from neighboring Berdkunk village.
Healthcare in Ayrivank is a simple out-patient clinic constructed in
1960.
After years of decline, villagers now talk about water levels
rising. Some coast roads and trees are under water now. So there is
hope at least for nature to thrive, even while Ayrivank struggles.
Our village is the best village in the world,” Knar says. “I cannot
imagine there is a world outside this village. If one day I don’t see
Sevan then it will mean it’s time to die.”

Vardavar: In Martuni, the day is about more than just water fights
armenianow.com
23 July 2004
By Vahan Ishkhanyan
ArmeniaNow reporter
Photos by Ruben Mangasaryan
While in Yerevan the celebration of Vardavar has turned into little
more than water fights, in Armenian regions like Martuni it remains a
holiday of significance.
Vardavar is a pagan holiday, which became “Christianized” when Armenia
became a Christian nation. The Apostolic Church realized that Vardavar
was too entrenched in the nation’s culture to dismiss it as pagan. So,
the Church adapted the day, and used it to commemorate the day of
Christ’s transfiguration.
Wet fun for kids . . .
Orginally it was connected with a water cult. Sacrifices were made to
the spirit protectors of water for the rains to come there would be no
drought.
The pagan day was dedicated to the goddess Astghik to whom roses were
given In Martuni, cafes and restaurants close for the day (which was
celebrated across the republic last Sunday).
“What cafes on Vardavar?” says a boy from Martuni. All the residents
of Martuni are celebrating Vardavar with their families.
In the morning Martunetsis pilgrimage to Ishkhanavank, an 11th century
church in Vardenik village. Once a year, the church and cemetery
become a place for celebration. (In general, every old church has its
pilgrimage day, the pilgrimage of Ishkhanavank is on Vardavar.) On
the right side of the entry to Ishkhanavank there’s an altar where
they kill the matagh (sacrifice) animal, a sheep or a rooster. Tamar
Minasyan promised a matagh for her grandchild Minasik’s successful
birth and happiness.
“My Minasik’s birthday was yesterday. We promised if he is born, we’d
do a matagh on Vardavar.” For twin grandchildren, the Minasyans
promised to do seven mataghs to Yeghegnadzor’s Saint Cross. For seven
years they would go there and do sacrifice. Now the twins are grown.
And for the newborn, they promised matagh to their favorite
Ishkhanvank. The head of the family cuts the sheep’s ear on a stone,
dips his finger into the blood and makes a cross with blood on
Minasik’s forehead.
. . . not so much fun for sheep.
“When they do matagh, they put a cross so that it is accepted,”
explains Tamar and another woman says because they are Christians,
they put a cross, and that the custom is centuries old. In
Ishkhanavank, hundreds of people have had blood traces on their
foreheads.
The Minasyans are from Vardenik, their house is close, so after
cutting the sheep’s ear, meaning after doing matagh they take the
animal home to kill it.
Those who come from far, kill the animal right there. First, they feed
the victim with the salt put near the stone. The salt has to be
blessed by the priest, so that according to church custom the animal
becomes clean and acceptable for God. There was no priest at
Ishkhanavank, but the pilgrims said that the salt had been previously
blessed (there was a priest last year).
The heads of the sheep are put on the stone one after the other and
are cut.
Yasha Movsisyan came here with his family from Nor Hajn (a village
near Yerevan). He says they come here each year with the family.
“I was born in Karabakh, but my grandfather was Martunetsi, so from
then on every year we come here for Vardavar.”
Even the young participate in old traditions
Unlike Minasyans Yasha doesn’t have any special purpose for matagh in
his mind. Matagh is their family tradition. Every year in
Ishkhanavank, they have to kill a sheep, then go down to the gorge and
flay it and make khashlama. According to the tradition the victim has
to be circled around the church seven times and only then it has to be
killed and the matagh, khashlama, has to be given to seven
strangers. But not everyone keeps to that tradition. They greet each
other, make toasts for happy matagh, happy Vardavar and celebrate at
the river bank.
Hundreds of candles light the half dark church. On the only table
filled with sand there’s no place to stick a candle. People stick the
candles to the walls of the church. At first sight it seems that the
walls are burning.
On the left side of the church entrance there’s a tree with many
pieces of clothes tied to it and each one of them is somebody’s
wish. People make a wish in their minds and tie a piece of their cloth
to the tree for the wish to come true.
Anush Martirosyan, together with her son David, ties a red cloth. “I
tie this cloth for my son to be happy and to appreciate my sufferings
when he grows up,” she says. The son, in his turn, makes a wish for
his mother. “For my mom to be healthy and for a good future for me.”
Anush, 38, was born in Vaghashen village. Now she lives in Yerevan and
it’s been 20 years since her last Vardavar at Ishkhanavank.
“I was baptized in this church, it’s my favorite place. I’ve always
dreamed of coming here again. I remember when I was small we used to
come here every year, we would walk to the road from the village and
from there we would come by bus. Then I remember on the way back there
was no place in the bus and once I was put in through the window. To
me Vardavar was the best day of the year, I liked it more than the New
Year.”
Anush is not alone in that opinion. Nor have the traditional meanings
of the day completely disappeared. Which is why last Sunday while
children throughout Armenia were pouring water on passers by and cars,
in Varndenik they were also observing the ancient custom of covering
their streets in roses. Just like when the day honored the goddess
Astghik.
This year, construction was completed on an new church in
Vardenik. But no one goes to the new church on Vardavar.

School of Choice or Chance: Entrance examinations test nerves, reveal trends
armenianow.com
23 July 2004
By Marianna Grigoryan
ArmeniaNow reporter
Entrance examinations for Armenia’s state universities have begun and
will continue through mid-August.
Some boys queue to become students and thereby avoid military
service. Some girls see a diploma as part of their trousseau. In some
cases they are pushed by parents and in others they legitimately want
to improve their future and see education as the means.
For whatever reasons, it is a time of nervous anticipation for
teenagers and parents.
As eager students and parents gathered for the fateful occasion,
Minister of Education and Science Sergo Yeritsyan called for calm.
But it is not a time for calm, for these days are, for thousands, a
time of “to be or not to be”. Every day throughout Yerevan,
applicants’ anxiety fills examination rooms while outside parents
pace, as if the birthing process had started all over.
“Here, getting higher education is something like a traditional thing
and it is respected,” says Vagharshak Khachatryan, secretary of the
committee responsible for admission. “Every year there is an increase
in the number of entrants.”
This year, 17,418 students have applied for 9,761 university places
(at 12 state institutions). Of the number accepted, 4,115 will study
free of charge, while 5,646 will pay for their education (as
determined by government requirements for assistance).
Pressing for answers . . .
That means that 7,657 applicants this year will either have to apply
to private universities (where examinations are considerably easier
but costs are higher) or wait until next year to apply again.
While the numbers may be a positive indication of the continued
emphasis Armenians place on higher education, they are also somewhat
perplexing.
For example, the number of applicants increases, while the level of
unemployment in the republic hardly changes, meaning that graduates
most likely cannot find work in their chosen field of study.
Khachatryan says it is also interesting that this year there is an
increase in the number of applicants for the Pedagogic University,
even though recent government changes have reduced the number of
teachers in Armenia.
Applications for other institutions don’t differ too much from
previous years. Most applicants apply for Yerevan State
University. The largest number wants to study law, followed by
economics, high technology, foreign languages, history, etc.
This year the number of applicants for the Academy of Agriculture and
Polytechnic University decreased, probably because the university now
requires two tests, as opposed to only one in some departments in
previous years.
Parents are anxious, too.
Contrary to art specialists’ insistence that this generation has no
appreciation for art, the number of applicants for art schools has
increased by 20 percent.
“Every year something changes, however, for sure there is no tendency
towards the decrease of interest in higher education,” says
Khachatryan.
Nor has there been a decrease in the dishonored tradition of bribery,
as parents buy off examiners who are more than willing to judge a
candidate’s bank account rather than his grade point.
Each year, the Ministry of Education promises that the process will be
just.
This year was no exception. In an attempt to fulfill the ministry’s
promises, minister Yeritsyan delayed announcing names of examination
heads.
Reporter and parents were also allowed to follow the entrance process.

Providence Journal , RI
July 25 2004
A tale of love and war

Debut novel set in Paris in 1919 has lots of Rhode Island history as
background

BY ANN HOOD
Special to the Journal

THE LAST DAY OF THE WAR, by Judith Claire Mitchell. Pantheon. 366
pages. $24.95.
Judith Claire Mitchell’s debut novel, The Last Day of the War, is a
sprawling, exciting love story set against the backdrop of Paris in
1919 and with interesting Rhode Island connections.
Eighteen-year-old Yael Weiss inadvertently takes a package from a
library shelf; its owner, a soldier named Dub Hagopian, must
negotiate with her for its return. In their brief meeting, he reveals
that he is a member of Erinyes, an organization with a secret plan to
revenge the Armenian genocide, and that the package contains guns.
Although he describes himself as “just a regular guy from Providence,
Rhode Island,” there’s nothing ordinary about Dub. Not only is he off
to Paris on a secret mission, but his hair, “in the front, is truly
half black and half gray.To the right of his part, his hair is black
as coal. To the left, a shock of pure shining silver.”
Yael is not ordinary, either. On the basis of these few moments, she
tampers with her birth certificate to make herself seven years older,
signs up to work in the YMCA soldiers’ canteens in Paris, changes her
name to Yale White, and crosses the Atlantic in search of Dub.
Improbably, they meet again almost immediately, fall in love and
embark on the secret mission together. Dub has a fiancée back home,
whom he does not love and who happens to be the sister of his best
friend and partner in crime.
Mitchell, a former longtime Rhode Island resident, uses her extensive
knowledge of our state’s history to build the inner and outer worlds
of Yale and Dub. Did you know that Providence was built on seven
hills, “like Rome”? Or that the Armenian community settled on Smith
Hill? “Why not Fruit Hill, with its flowering orchards and arbors?
Why not College Hill, with its ivy league university, or Mount
Pleasant, with its farms and fat grazing sheep?” A picture of a very
different Providence emerges through the eyes of Dub and his Armenian
community.
Although some of these plot twists might feel familiar, Mitchell
weaves a tale filled with historical detail and facts about the 1915
Armenian massacres, and about life in 1919, complete with Y girls and
fashions like split skirts.
This combination of love and war, history and revenge, makes for a
thrilling read, one that lingers long after you finish it.
Ann Hood is a novelist and short-story writer in Providence. Her
latest collection, An Ornithologist’s Guide to Life, was reviewed
here last week.
From: Emil Lazarian | Ararat NewsPress

Tacy Ltd., Israel
July 25 2004
ADAMAS PLANS 2ND SYNTHETIC DIAMOND LINE

By the end of this year Belarussian state unitary enterprise Adamas
plans to launch a second line for producing synthetic diamonds,
doubling production capacity to 8,000 carats per annum.
In addition, Adamas plans to launch new technology that will double
the potential weight of diamonds produced to 1.5 carats, and may also
double production capacity. This development program is expected to
cost some US$3.25 million.
The company says that demand for its synthetic diamonds currently
exceeds supply. Consumers of Adamas products include Kristall of
Gomel in Belarus, Russia, Armenia, Iran, South Korea and Japan.

Main Gate, Magazine of the American University of Beirut
Spring Vol I, No. 3
Woman of the Year
Alumnus Mary Najarian (RN ’55) has spent much of the last twenty
years working day and night to improve medical care in Armenia.
Attending a gala in her honor, Lynn Mahoney finds in the woman an
inspiring mix of courage, humility, and dedication.
There are tributes, and then there are tributes.
So I discovered in Los Angeles the evening of February 2, 2004. It
happened to be Superbowl Sunday, a tough night in the United States
to draw a crowd to any event without the lure of a wide screen
television broadcast of the game. But as I realized while watching
the large crowd arrive to recognize her twenty years of humanitarian
service in Armenia, Mary Najarian is no ordinary woman.
Some 500 hundred friends and members of family filled the George
Deukmejian Ballroom at the Ararat Home in Los Angeles. Each table was
lavishly spread with mezzeh and flowers, as well as with a charming
selection of Armenian folk dolls and prayer beads donated by
Najarian. As we all sat down for dinner, the heartfelt laudatory
speeches began. Each speaker commented on how Najarian had touched
the lives of so many people in Armenia, as well as their own – a
profound tribute to a woman who makes no fuss about her vital work
and has no expectations of recognition.
Mary Najarian’s humanitarian activities in Armenia began in 1984,
while the country was still under the heavy yoke of the former Soviet
Union and entry was close to impossible for foreigners. Just one year
after that visit, she and her husband, Vartkes Najarian (MD ’57)
founded Medical Outreach for Armenians, which since then has raised,
donated, and transported over 46 million dollars worth of medical and
surgical supplies to Armenia and Karabagh.
Najarian’s commitment to improving medical care in Armenia has been
extraordinary, and the extent of it was personally relayed during the
dinner by her friends and family, particularly by her beautiful
daughter Maro Yacoubian, who totally shares her mother’s dedication.
She told of countless late nights, phone calls to Armenia at all
hours, and the hard work of preparing the shipments of medical
supplies. In fact, Maro noted, her parents’ labor of love consumed so
much of their time that it was not until January 2004 that they took
their first vacation ever – a cruise around the Caribbean.
Commenting on the tributes, Najarian observed with characteristic
understatement, `It makes you feel good…it’s so encouraging to know
people appreciate what you have done. That I am a woman and was able
to accomplish as much as I have makes a difference, too. You know,
Armenia is a man’s world, and it is hard for women to open doors.’
Mary and Vartkes Najarian have taken a decidedly hands-on approach to
medical outreach. In 1985, Vartkes himself carried the first
arthroscopic set to Armenia and taught the local physicians knee
surgery using the latest medical equipment. Mary, on her part,
personally supervised the renovation of an operating room and trained
nurses in the aseptic technique.
`My nursing education at AUB was a huge help in my relief efforts. As
a nurse, I worked side by side with my husband. I would check
supplies while in the field and find out what is needed,’ she said,
reflecting on her education. `The training at AUB was and is still
superior to anything I have seen, especially in surgical nursing.’
It was during the first trips to Armenia that she saw just how far
behind the hospitals were on modern surgical techniques. `It was like
being in the Middle Ages,’ she recalled. `It took Vartkes and me
three to four weeks to get the doctors trained in aseptic techniques –
before that they didn’t even wear facemasks or scrub for surgery.’
The war in Karabagh brought new challenges for the Najarians. Medical
Outreach for Armenia, the non-profit organization they founded to
improve healthcare in Armenia, continued sending medical supplies
from Los Angeles when the war started, but as the number of
casualties rose, they simply had to go to Armenia to help. `Vartkes
and I traveled to the war zone and worked there. This was the hardest
challenge of all.’
Once in Karabagh, they literally worked in the trenches, as wounded
soldiers were brought in from the battlefield. `There were no
hospitals in the war zone. We operated in tunnels with flashlights
that would only work for 20 minutes and Vartkes would be performing
surgery on the floor.’ She tells how saddening it was to see these
young men, many of them only 18 or 19 years old, suffer. `They were
kids and would usually stay with us for a week recovering. Later,
they would return with their parents to thank us – that, in itself, was
payment enough for our hard work.’
Throughout those difficult war years, while continuing to return to
Armenia to assist with surgeries, the Najarians also kept sending
cartloads of medical supplies gathered from top pharmaceutical and
surgical equipment companies – in one year alone they shipped 50
containers to Karabagh. `The Armenian medical community was just
astounded – they had never seen so many new medications in such
quantities before,’ she exclaimed.
Considering her many travels to Armenia, Najarian’s dedication is
obvious. She has been to Armenia 46 times and Karabagh 22 times – at
the rate of two or three times a year, especially during the war for
stays of two to six weeks.
One of her greatest accomplishments, which she modestly mentions, is
her work at the Veterans Hospital in Yerevan. `The conditions were
unbelievably bad. There were eight to ten patients to a room, with
the beds all connected. There was no running water except for two
hours a day. The toilets were horrible – there was one toilet for every
50 patients and you could not get in and out without carrying traces
of fecal matter.’ Medical Outreach for Armenians renovated seven
floors in the hospital, in addition to three annex floors. Bathrooms
were constructed as well with one for each ward of five patients
along with more bedrooms for patients. Operating rooms were
modernized with equipment from the US.

But there is still much work to be done, says Najarian. `While the
Veterans Hospital has improved tremendously and can now provide
proper medical care for the military and their families, it is not
available to the poor and the needy. Many patients go to the hospital
to die because that is all they can afford to do,’ she explains.
`This causes me much pain.’
Not surprisingly, the Najarians are determined to find a way to fix
this problematic situation, much as they did with renovating the
Veterans Hospital. `We are planning to establish a hospital, equipped
with foreign doctors working on a volunteer basis to provide free
health care for those who need it.’ What they are lacking, however,
is the facility. `I am determined to insist in the Armenian
newspapers that the government must provide us with a building. I
feel I have not accomplished anything until the public has free
access to medical care.’
Until then, the Najarians will continue with letters to the
government and rallying the support of the American medical community
to establish the hospital. And the shipments of medical supplies will
go on. `We have been lucky in getting out a container every two to
three weeks. And we can support a hospital, if given the chance.’
Najarian also shared memories of her student days: `The University
was very prestigious. To say you were an AUB student was something
big.’ She arrived at AUB with three very close friends from the
American School in Aleppo, Syria – Angie Bahuth, Adrin Beheler, and
Knarig Méyer. Their first year was not only special academically but
personally as well. `We all met our boyfriends then,’ Najarian notes,
laughing. No rivalries existed between the women and they lived like
sisters, encouraging each other and always helping one another in a
pinch. Throughout the years, those friendships have remained strong
and precious to Najarian – and to the other women as well. This was
apparent in the touching account Angie Bahuth gave of their AUB days
and in the high respect and admiration she expressed for Najarian at
the dinner, which was organized largely through her efforts.
Najarian considers AUB the major stepping stone that enabled her and
her friends to go to America and support themselves there. She likes
to tell people that she went from Beirut to Chicago with only 90
cents in her pocket, with which she purchased a bowl of chili with
some saltines, `The absolute best!’ she recalls. In no time at all,
she found work at Wesley Memorial Hospital and they paid her tuition
to go to Northwestern University for additional schooling. By then,
she and Vartkes had married and the couple moved to Cleveland, Ohio,
where they stayed for twenty years. There, she became the mother of
three boys and one girl, who all grew up to become successful
professionals. For the last twenty-five years, the family has lived
in southern California.
It is not surprising that Najarian should care so much for the
welfare of others. Her early years were a time of severe hardship for
the family. She grew up poor, but very much loved, the child of
parents who fled Armenia during the genocide. Despite limited
financial circumstances, giving was a tradition deeply rooted in the
family. `My sister and I once won a cash prize award at school, and
we were so happy. On our return home, my father congratulated us, but
said we had to give the money to others in the community who needed
it more. This is where I got my philanthropy from,’ she recalls.
Turning her thoughts to nursing education, Najarian says, `I find it
disappointing that not many Armenian girls are enrolled in AUB’s
Nursing School today. We need to draw more young women into the
program. There is such a huge nursing shortage in the United States,
and what I want is for AUB to prepare nurses for job placement in
America.’
Najarian feels so strongly about the matter that, true to form, she
is thinking of launching a grass roots effort to help. `I will simply
go into the high schools in Beirut or Aleppo, where I graduated from
high school and persuade the young women to consider a career in
nursing and apply to AUB. I am positive we can find them financial
assistance as needed.’
The tribute came to an end following speeches from leaders in the Los
Angeles and Armenian-American community, as well as friends and
family. The AUB Alumni Association of North America presented
Najarian with a resolution commending her humanitarian service.
All without exception dwelled upon the humanitarian essence of her
work to improve the quality of medical care in Armenia, as they spoke
of the many ways in which this one woman had touched and enhanced the
lives of countless people, patients and doctors alike. Watching her
face glow during this gratifying show of respect, admiration, and
affection, one was also made to realize the extent to which Mary
Najarian’s modesty, compassion, and tireless dedication have made her
an inspiration to all those who know her.

Main Gate, Magazine of the American University of Beirut
Spring Vol I, No. 3
In Memoriam
Haroutune Kalayan (BSE ’46), who was born in 1908 in Aintab, Turkey,
died on December 21, 2003, at the age of 95. In 1915, after his older
brother and father were massacred in the Armenian genocide, he moved
with his mother and brother to Aleppo, where he attended Aleppo
College. He then came to the American University of Beirut, where he
graduated with a BS in engineering.
In 1937, he married Berjouhie Shirajian and moved with her to Cyprus,
where he taught at the Melkonian College for a few years. After
Lebanon gained its independence, he returned to Beirut and worked at
the Lebanese Department of Antiquities and also taught part-time at
AUB’s Faculty of Engineering and Architecture. He is known for his
restoration of the ancient ruins in Lebanon and received the Said Akl
Award for his work.
In 1978, he went to Jordan and worked with its Department of
Antiquities until he retired in 1989. Shortly after his retirement,
he moved to the United States to live with his children. He is well
known in the archaeology community, and during his lifetime gave many
lectures in the Middle East and Europe on the ancient sites he loved
so much, among them Palmyra, Baalbeck, Anjar, Sidon, Byblos, Jerash,
and Petra.
His two daughters, Alice Ispentchian and Shoushan Samman; five
grandchildren; and four great-grandchildren survive him.
Garo S. Matossian (MD ’49) passed away surrounded by family on March
11, 2004, at his son’s home in Ann Arbor, Michigan. He was 83. Born
Garabed Setrak Matossian in 1921 in Aintab, Cilician Armenia, he was
the son of Professor Setrak Matossian of Central Turkey College and
educator Eliza Ayvazian Matossian. The Matossians and their children
were forced into permanent exile in 1922 during the aftermath of the
Armenian genocide. They eventually settled in Aleppo, Syria.
Matossian graduated first in his class from the medical school of the
American University of Beirut, where he met his future wife,
historian Mary Allerton Kilbourne. He immigrated to the US in 1952 to
continue his studies at Harvard University’s School of Public Health.
He was married in 1954 and became an American citizen in 1958. After
holding medical positions in Boston and in Buffalo, New York,
Matossian joined the Yater Clinic in Washington, DC, where he
remained for 28 years and served as chairman of its board. While
professor of hematology at the Georgetown University School of
Medicine, he received the Vicennial Award for teaching. He also was
attending physician at Georgetown University Hospital, Washington
Hospital Center, and Sibley Memorial Hospital. Matossian was a fellow
of the American College of Physicians and resided for 40 years in
Bethesda, MD.
Long active in Armenian affairs, Matossian was a steadfast supporter
of the Armenian Assembly of America (Fellow Trustee), the Armenian
General Benevolent Union, the National Association for Armenian
Studies and Research, the Armenian Library and Museum of America, and
the Armenian Numismatic Society.
He is survived by his wife Mary, daughters Lou Ann, Kristine, and
Michele Irene, and sons Viken Raffi and Mark Garo.
From: Emil Lazarian | Ararat NewsPress

CIVIL GEORGIA
2004-06-18 14:00:04
In a symbolic gesture of Georgia’s European aspiration, President
Saakashvili ordered in April the EU flags to fly beside the Georgia’s
five-cross national flags over the governmental buildings in Georgia.
EU Boosts Ties with Georgia
Tea Gularidze, Civil Georgia
Inclusion of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia in the European Union’s
Neighborhood Policy, announcement of launch of the Rule of Law aid mission
to Georgia to help the country with reforming its criminal justice system
and the EU’s pledge to double its financial assistance for Georgia in next
three years, marks a significant step forward in the EU’s increased
engagement with the South Caucasus region and particularly with regard to
Georgia.
EU foreign ministers, meeting in Luxemburg on June 14 announced that the
South Caucasus region will be included in the European Neighborhood Policy
(ENP). ENP is designed to offer member countries a privileged relationship
with EU, which will be build on mutual commitment to common values
principally within the fields of the rule of law, good governance, the
respect for human rights, including minority rights.
Georgian Foreign Minister Salome Zourabichvili says that although ENP is
distinct from the issue of potential membership, “it is a step forward
towards the EU.”
“Inclusion in this Neighborhood Initiative is of a huge political
importance. Previously the inclusion of the Caucasus countries in the
Neighborhood Initiative was not even discussed. Besides the political side,
economic benefits are also expected. A special fund will be set up, which
will finance various programs to help Georgia become more EU-compatible,”
Salome Zourabichvili told Civil Georgia on June 15.
Harry Molenaar, Ambassador of the Netherlands and EU Presidency
representative in Georgia (Ireland, which currently holds the EU presidency,
has no embassy in Georgia; hence Netherlands Ambassador represents the EU
presidency. Netherlands will take over EU presidency from July 1) said at a
news briefing in Tbilisi on June 17 that recent developments in Georgia,
referring to last November Rose Revolution, largely triggered inclusion of
the South Caucasus countries to the ENP. “Decision to include Georgia in ENP
is an important signal for Georgia,” Ambassador Molenaar added.
Jacques Vantomme, Charge d’Affaires of the Delegation of the European
Commission in Georgia said at the same news briefing that all the three
countries of the region will have equal opportunities to further boost ties
wit the EU through individual action plan.
“Inclusion of Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia in European Neighborhood
Policy proves that the EU made step forward towards strengthening of its
engagement with the region,” Jacque Vantomme added.
Georgia is now expected to make up a plan of action to outline particular
steps, which will bring the country closer to the European standards.
“Following the inclusion in the European Neighborhood Policy, Georgia should
make up a plan of actions. It is very important for us to make a plan which
will bring us closer to Europe,” Salome Zourabichvili, Georgian Foreign
Minister told Civil Georgia.
EU Commissioner Janez Potocnik of Slovenia, who together with Commissioner
Günter Verheugen is in charge of European enlargement, will visit Georgia on
5-6 July to discuss with the Georgian leadership details of the ENP policy.
On the same day, when the EU announced about inclusion of South Caucasus
countries in the ENP, the EU foreign ministers gave a go-ahead to the so
called Rule of Law aid mission to Georgia on June 14.
“This is the first mission of this kind by the EU, which will help Georgia
to reform its criminal justice system,” Jacques Vantomme, Charge d’Affaires
of the Delegation of the European Commission, told Civil Georgia on June 17.
10 civilian experts from the EU member states will arrive in Georgia on July
15 and will be co-located in key-positions with the Supreme Court, the
General Prosecutor and relevant ministries. Its duration will initially be
one year, with the possibility of an extension.
Chris Patten, European Commissioner for External Relations, said in Brussels
on June 16 that sending of Rule of Law mission is “an indication of the EU’s
strengthened engagement with regard to Georgia.”
Just couple of days later after the announcement of launch ENP and Rule of
Law mission in Georgia, the Donors Conference in Brussels, co-organized by
the European Commission and the World Bank announced on June 16 that the
group of international donors would grant around $1 billion to Georgia for
the period 2004-2006.
This amount is twice more than requested by the Georgian government at the
conference, who has initially submitted request for $485 million for the
next three years in order to address the urgent financial needs of the
country.
Georgia intends to allocate $1 billion aid in the seven most vulnerable
sectors of the country: rehabilitation of energy sector; budget support;
governance and anti-corruption measures; poverty reduction; infrastructure
rehabilitation; agriculture and development of food safety system; the
measures aiming at reintegration of Adjara Autonomous Republic.
In a joint press release issued by the European Commission and World Bank,
financial assistance of $1 billion is described, as “an extremely generous
sign of support for the new government of Georgia.
The EU’s share in this aid package consists $150 million, which is designed
to support the Georgian government’s urgent needs in order to carry out its
substantial reform plans.
Together with humanitarian assistance, as well as rehabilitation in areas
affected by the conflicts in breakaway Abkhazia and South Ossetia, total EU
assistance to Georgia for 2004-2006 amounts to $164 million – twice more
compared with the previous 3-year period 2001-2003.
—

La Vie Financière
23 juillet 2004
La planète s’enflamme pour l’or noir;
Les majors non américaines (1859-1913)
Par Paul-Jacques Lehmann, professeur à l’université de Rouen.
Révolution technologique aux conséquences incalculables, l’invention
de l’ampoule à incandescence par Edison (1878) va porter un coup
fatal à la consommation de pétrole destiné à l’éclairage. Ce débouché
se tarira complètement avec la généralisation du gaz et de
l’électricité. Mais les progrès de la science fournissent à l’or noir
une seconde chance : il devient source d’énergie – carburant pour les
moteurs, combustible pour le chauffage domestique, utilisation
industrielle, matière première pour l’industrie chimique. Les
avancées de la technique vont en effet permettre l’utilisation de
deux huiles issues du raffinage : l’une légère, l’essence ; l’autre
lourde, le mazout, résidus que l’on était contraint, jusque-là, de
brûler pour s’en débarrasser.
Pendant la plus grande partie du XIXe siècle, c’est la vapeur
provenant du charbon qui propulse les véhicules. Depuis longtemps, on
cherche une nouvelle énergie moins chère et plus facile à utiliser.
En 1890, Peugeot vend deux voitures équipées du premier moteur à
essence, dit à explosion, breveté en 1883 par Daimler. Pendant plus
d’une décennie, l’achat d’automobiles reste l’apanage de quelques
privilégiés. La situation évolue à partir de 1905 quand Henry Ford,
un ancien de la Standard Oil, après avoir construit une voiture à
essence dans un petit atelier de Detroit, crée une entreprise pour
fabriquer des automobiles en série : son modèle T (pour tourisme)
sera vendu à 15 millions d’exemplaires. La consommation d’essence ne
cesse alors d’augmenter : en 1910, ses ventes dépassent pour la
première fois celles du kérosène, pour atteindre 5,8 millions de
tonnes en 1913, dont 190 000 tonnes en France, soit près de 30 % de
la consommation totale de pétrole.
On est également persuadé que le pétrole peut remplacer le charbon
comme combustible pour la navigation. La facilité d’utilisation des
huiles lourdes et leur faible coût finissent d’ailleurs par
convaincre les derniers récalcitrants de l’avantage du mazout. Les
camions, les locomotives, les automobiles se mettront aussi au fuel,
qui sera ensuite adapté au chauffage d’usines et d’habitations. La
pétrochimie fait également son apparition. Utilisée la première fois
pour fabriquer des pneus, son expansion sera continue dans de
multiples domaines (engrais, matières plastiques…).
Une production en constante augmentation
La production de pétrole passe de 10 millions de tonnes en 1890 à 51
millions en 1913 et intéresse de nombreux pays car la découverte de
gisements n’est plus limitée aux seuls Etats-Unis. En Amérique du
Sud, on exploite des puits au Mexique à partir de 1902, en Argentine
à partir de 1907, au Pérou et au Venezuela à partir de 1914. La
productivité s’améliore à tous les niveaux : dans la production, où
les systèmes de forage par rotation se substituent progressivement
aux systèmes par percussion ; dans le raffinage ; dans la
distribution, quand les pompes à main installées aux portes des
épiceries puis au bord des routes remplacent les bidons en fer-blanc.
On fonde déjà de grands espoirs sur les forages marins qui commencent
dans le golfe du Mexique et dans la mer Caspienne. La Russie devient
un grand pays producteur et Bakou la Titusville russe : sa population
passe de 5 000 habitants en 1850 à 100 000 en 1890. Les gisements de
la région de Groznyï, à 500 kilomètres, complètent la production. Des
raffineries y existent depuis 1823, mais des problèmes de transport
vers les centres de consommation en entravent l’expansion. En 1888,
le pays fournit 23 millions de barils de pétrole, soit 80 % de la
production américaine. Ses raffineries travaillent alors à pleine
capacité grce aux exportations dans toute l’Europe, où le
quasi-monopole mondial exercé par la Standard Oil est fortement
entamé.
Nobel et Rothschild précurseurs en Russie
Arrivé dans la région pour acheter du bois pour l’entreprise
d’armement créée par son père, Ludwig Nobel se prend de passion pour
le pétrole, s’installe en Russie et décide ses frères à y investir.
En 1887, la société Nobel est propriétaire de 40 % des terrains de la
région de Bakou, assure la moitié de la production pétrolière du pays
et gère deux cents raffineries. Elle s’est aussi spécialisée dans le
transport par bateau en vrac et par pipelines, percés dans la
montagne grce à l’emploi de la dynamite, inventée par Alfred Nobel.
Ainsi, l’oléoduc de 880 kilomètres entre Bakou et le port turc de
Batoum, annexé par la Russie en 1877, est achevé en 1893. L’Histoire
veut qu’à la mort de Ludwig, en 1888, de nombreux journaux annoncent
le décès d’Alfred et le critiquent en tant qu’inventeur de
l’explosif. Prenant ombrage de ces nécrologies, il lègue sa fortune à
une fondation pour l’instauration du fameux prix. Après la révolution
russe, les Nobel vendent la moitié de leur empire pétrolier à la
Standard Oil et sont expropriés pour le reste.
Les Rothschild jouent aussi un grand rôle dans l’histoire moderne du
pétrole russe. Appelés pour financer l’achèvement d’une ligne de
chemin de fer permettant de transporter le pétrole de Bakou à Batoum,
ils créent en 1886 la Compagnie pétrolière de la Caspienne et de la
mer Noire (Bnito) et deviennent le deuxième producteur russe. Ils
signent des accords avec les Nobel pour s’assurer la première place
mondiale des exportations vers l’Extrême-Orient.
De Shell à Royal Dutch
Quand les Rothschild veulent s’implanter en Asie, ils signent un
accord avec un négociant, Marcus Samuel, qui obtient pour neuf ans
l’exclusivité de la vente du pétrole de la Bnito en Extrême-Orient.
Il achète des entrepôts à Singapour pour stocker le liquide. Lui
aussi est persuadé que c’est le coût du transport qui fera la
différence. Il a donc créé un nouveau type de navires-citernes lui
permettant, grce à un système de nettoyage à la vapeur, de
transporter indifféremment du pétrole en vrac de Bornéo en Russie, ou
de Russie en Extrême-Orient, et des denrées d’Asie (thé, riz, coton)
en Europe. L’un de ses bateaux, le Murex, est le premier à emprunter,
en 1892, le canal de Suez. En 1902, 90 % du pétrole transitant par le
canal lui appartiennent. En 1897, il change le nom de sa société, qui
devient la Shell (en anglais, « coquille ») Transport & Trading,
société de nationalité britannique.
En 1895, Samuel obtient une concession de 80 kilomètres carrés à
l’est de Bornéo, dans une région difficilement accessible. La
production débute en avril 1898. Une autre société, la Compagnie
royale pour l’exploitation des puits de pétrole des Indes
néerlandaises, se trouve depuis 1890 dans la région, à Sumatra, où
des puits sont exploités depuis 1871, et distribue le pétrole sous la
marque Crown Oil. Totalement intégrée elle aussi, la Royal Dutch doit
son succès à sa proximité des lieux de consommation de pétrole en
Extrême-Orient, ce qui lui épargne le coût du transport depuis les
Etats-Unis et la Russie. En décembre 1900, au décès de son fondateur,
Auguste Kessler, un nouveau dirigeant est nommé en Extrême-Orient,
Henry Deterding. D’une famille pauvre, c’est par son métier de
banquier qu’il a connu la société pétrolière, quand il a été amené à
la sortir de graves difficultés financières. Dorénavant à la tête de
l’entreprise, il n’a de cesse de combattre la Standard. Il achète les
principaux producteurs des Indes néerlandaises et cherche à s’allier
avec la Shell, annihilant les nombreuses tentatives de la société de
John Rockefeller de s’approprier les deux entreprises.
Un accord commercial est signé en 1901, suivi en 1907 de la
constitution du groupe Royal Dutch-Shell, holding qui détient les
deux compagnies d’exploitation, dans une proportion de 60 % pour la
première et de 40 % pour la seconde, toujours valable de nos jours.
Henry Deterding en devient le directeur général, puis le président
quand Samuel lui cède sa place. Les Rothschild rejoignent les deux
associés pour former l’Asiatic Petroleum Company, avant de leur
vendre, en 1912, leurs intérêts en Russie. Payés en actions, ils
deviennent les actionnaires principaux de la Royal Dutch. Le groupe
s’impose progressivement en Europe, avant de tenter, avec succès, sa
chance au Mexique, au Venezuela et même aux Etats-Unis.
L’Anglo-Persian de William Knox d’Arcy
Les recherches de pétrole débutent en Perse en 1872, mais restent
longtemps infructueuses. En 1901, le shah accorde, pour une durée de
soixante ans, une concession de pétrole sur les trois quarts du pays
à un avocat canadien d’origine française, William d’Arcy, qui a fait
fortune en découvrant une mine d’or en Australie. La prospection ne
donne aucun résultat pendant deux ans et son coût se révèle vingt
fois plus élevé que prévu. William d’Arcy, à court de trésorerie,
soutenu par le gouvernement britannique, s’associe à la Burmah Oil
Company, créée en 1886 par un groupe écossais afin d’assurer
l’exploitation du pétrole birman, pour former l’Anglo-Persian Oil
Company, qui deviendra en 1935 l’Anglo-Iranian Oil Company puis, en
1954, la British Petroleum. William d’Arcy est nommé directeur de la
société. La recherche se poursuit dans un environnement difficile :
le shah est renversé ; le pays est partagé entre la Russie et
l’Angleterre. Lassés, les dirigeants de la société envoient, de
Londres, début mai 1908, un télégramme au responsable de
l’exploitation lui enjoignant de tout arrêter. Se produit alors un
coup du destin : le destinataire du télégramme ne le divulgue pas et
ne tient pas compte de l’injonction. Deux semaines plus tard, le 26
mai 1908, le pétrole jaillit au-dessus du derrick du puits
Masjid-I-Suleiman. D’autres gisements sont découverts dans le pays.
Un pipeline de plus de 200 kilomètres est construit à travers le
désert jusqu’à Abadan, où une raffinerie est édifiée.
Bien que la distribution de son brut soit assurée par la Royal Dutch,
la situation financière de l’Anglo-Persian reste préoccupante.
L’Amirauté britannique va la sauver. Depuis le début du siècle,
beaucoup de ses responsables sont convaincus qu’une guerre contre
l’Allemagne est inéluctable et que la victoire se décidera sur les
mers. La modernisation de la flotte, indispensable, passe par la
conversion au mazout de la propulsion des navires. Il faut donc à
l’Angleterre une source sûre d’approvisionnement en pétrole.
L’arrivée de Churchill comme premier lord de l’Amirauté en 1911
précipite les choses alors que les relations entre l’Anglo-Persian et
la Royal Dutch se détériorent. Ne voulant pas que le pétrole dont le
pays a tant besoin tombe entre les mains d’intérêts néerlandais à un
moment où les Pays-Bas soutiennent l’Allemagne, le gouvernement
britannique apporte les fonds indispensables à l’Anglo-Persian. Il en
prend le contrôle à 51 % en 1913 et la Royal Navy devient le
principal client de l’Anglo-Persian.
La Turkish Petroleum de Calouste Gulbenkian
L’Empire ottoman, en pleine crise, commence à intéresser les
compagnies pétrolières. Alors que les sociétés américaines sont quasi
absentes de cette région, pourtant promise à un avenir radieux, les
compagnies britanniques et allemandes sont toutes-puissantes en Asie
mineure. C’est dans ce contexte que commence à s’imposer Calouste
Gulbenkian, Arménien né en 1863 dans une riche famille de négociants.
Après ses études, cet ingénieur des mines rentre en Russie, où il se
passionne pour le pétrole. A la suite du massacre des Arméniens, il
s’enfuit en Egypte en 1896, puis s’établit à Londres, où il vend du
pétrole russe et procure de nombreux contrats à la Royal Dutch-Shell.
Naturalisé anglais en 1902, conseiller financier du gouvernement turc
à Londres, il devient directeur d’une banque, dont il détient 30 % du
capital et qui est actionnaire à 50 % de la Turkish Petroleum Company
– créée grce à ses bons offices en 1911 – aux côtés de la Royal
Dutch-Shell et de la Deutsche Bank, chacune à hauteur de 25 %. En
1914, un accord anglo-allemand donne à l’Anglo-Persian 50 % de la
Turkish Petroleum Company. L’Anglo-Persian et la Shell abandonnent
chacune 2,5 % des bénéfices à Gulbenkian, qui devient « Monsieur 5 %
» ! Les signataires s’engagent à ne pas s’intéresser à la production
pétrolière dans l’Empire ottoman (sauf en Egypte et au Koweït), en
dehors de leur participation dans la Turkish Petroleum Company. Cet
arrangement est le point de départ de la lutte future pour le pétrole
au Moyen-Orient.
-> -> ->Dates clés
1886
– Création de la Compagnie pétrolière de la Caspienne et de la mer
Noire par les Rothschild.
1897
– Naissance de la Shell Transport & Trading britannique dont les
premiers navires-citernes vont jusqu’en Extrême-Orient.
1903
– Création de l’Anglo-Persian Oil Company, ancêtre de la British
Petroleum.
1905
– Henry Ford crée sa première usine de construction d’automobiles.
1907
– Création de la Royal Dutch-Shell.
1908
– Le pétrole jaillit en Iran, alors que l’Anglo-Persian avait décidé
d’arrêter les forages.
Des indépendants aux Etats-Unis
-Aux Etats-Unis apparaissent des indépendants, nom donné aux sociétés
sans lien avec la Standard Oil et qui seront à l’origine de la
découverte de la plupart des futurs gisements. Deux entrent
rapidement dans la cour des « grands ». Le premier est la Guffey
Petroleum Company, du colonel Guffey, un pros- pecteur à l’origine de
l’exploitation du premier puits au Texas, le 10 janvier 1901, près de
Spindletop. Andrew W. Mellon, sidérurgiste et banquier, prend une
participation de 40 % dans la société, qui est transformée en Gulf
Oil Company. En 1906, Guffey signe un accord avec Samuel qui vient de
s’installer dans la région. Royal Dutch-Shell lui garantit de lui
transporter, pendant vingt ans, une quantité minimale de pétrole,
destinée à l’Amirauté britannique. C’est le début de l’installation
de Royal Dutch-Shell dans tous les Etats producteurs des Etats-Unis.
Mellon, mécontent de cet accord, se sépare alors de Guffey, tout en
conservant la Gulf. Devenu secrétaire d’Etat au Trésor après la
guerre, il imposera sa société comme concessionnaire de gisements au
Venezuela, aux côtés de la Shell. Le deuxième indépendant est la
Texas Fuel Company, de Joseph Cullinan, un ancien de la Standard,
raffineur et distributeur sous le nom de Texaco et qui dispose de ses
propres pipelines.
A la déclaration de la Première Guerre mondiale, les majors sont déjà
constituées. On ne cessera plus de les retrouver au travers de
tractations, de conflits, d’accords qui vont décider de la conduite
économique et politique du monde.
From: Baghdasarian